HIST EURO-1

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ESSAY WRITING. An essay is a piece of formal academic writing. At senior secondary level, all questions must be answered in essay form. Therefore, a pupil at senior level is required to have the skills of writing good and acceptable essays.

GUIDELINES TO ESSAY WRITING. 1. Before answering any question, a pupil must fully understand the question by identifying the key words in a question i.e. 

Account for- this requires a pupil to give reasons for an event e.g. Account for the Great Trek.

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Give an account of- explain an event in detail in the stages in which it happened e.g. give an account of the Great Trek; this means that the pupils must describe the stages of the Great Trek.

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Define- give clear meanings of terms. A pupil is not required to give details e.g. define the term British Policy of Splendid Isolation.

Compare and Contrast- This requires a pupil to mention the similarities and differences between two given topics. E.g. Compare and contrast the way of lives of the San and the Khoi-Khoi before the arrival of the Dutch in South Africa. 

Outline- List main points on a given topic without giving details e.g. outline the aims of the League of Nations.

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Illustrate and explain- This requires a pupil to use a diagram, a table or a map to clarify an explanation.

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Describe- This requires a pupil to give details of an event in clear sequence.

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Trace- describes the progress or development from some point of Origin.

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Discuss-A pupil is required to give all the relevant details on a given topic.

2. Understanding the question also requires a pupil to know or pay attention to all parts of a question. History questions sometimes can have part (a) and (b) and marks are allocated for each part. Before answering such questions, pupils must ensure that they know both parts of the question in order to score the highest possible mark on the question. This is because the marks are divided between the parts of the question. For example, (a) Discuss the reasons for 2

European acquisition of colonies in Africa in the 19th Century. (b) Why was there a low Demand for African territories before 1870? {14, 6}. PARTS OF AN ESSAY. A well written essay should have three parts namely; the introduction, the main body and the conclusion.

Introduction. The introduction gives the reader or the marker an idea of what the essay is all about. It also indicates to the reader how the question is going to be answered. The introduction can also contain definitions and an outline of the topics to be discussed. However the introduction should be very brief as it does not carry any marks. The Main Body.  The main body of the essay contains all the points to be discussed. This is where the question is answered. Therefore certain things must be observed.  The points must be well arranged, mostly based on chronological order. For example, if a pupil is discussing the judicial reforms that the British introduced at the Cape, it would make better sense for the pupil to first discuss the Black circuit courts which were introduced in 1812, then the Lord Somerset Proclamation of 1823, the 50th Ordinance of 1828 and finally The Abolition of Slavery/Emancipation Acts of 1833.  Divide the essay into paragraphs based on the points. This would make marking easier and it would also remind the pupil of points that have been left out. For example, when discussing the social, political and social way of life of the Bantu. Each of the aspects of the way of life should be written in paragraph form. Never write in point form by using pointers such as -, numbering or writing headings. If u do so, you will be penalized by dividing whatever you get out of 20 by 2.  Observe all the rules of Academic (composition) writing. Use capital letters where they are supposed to be e.g. a name of a person, a country and when starting a sentence. Also use the appropriate punctuation marks such as comas, full stops and semi colons. Never 3

use abbreviations in essays such as e.g., etc govt for government. Always ensure that u use correct English and spellings. Conclusion. The conclusion is merely a summary of what the essay was all about. It must be brief and to the point. In the conclusion, you can also express your opinion or take sides on a topic based on the essay.

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OUTLINE OF EUROPEAN HISTORY. 1. Outline of Europe before 1870. 2. Unification of Germany  Bismarck and the wars of Unification.  Bismarck’s Home Policies  Bismarck’s Foreign Policies  The fall of Bismarck. 3. The British Policy of Splendid Isolation.  Why Britain followed the Policy  Why the Policy was abandoned  How the Policy was abandoned 4. Imperialism.  Definition  Reasons for the European acquisition of Colonies  Reasons for the low demand for colonies before 1870. 5. The First World War 1914-1918.  Major events leading to the outbreak of WW1  General Causes of the War  Course of the War  Results of the War. 6. The Versailles Peace Settlement-1918  Views of the “Big Four”.  Provisions/Terms of the Treaty.  Reactions of the Germans to the Treaty. 7. The League of Nations.  Aims of the League of Nations. 5

 Organisation/Structure of the League  Successes and failures of the League 8. The Weimar Republic 1919-1933  Origins of the Weimar Republic  Provisions of the Weimar Constitution  Problems, weaknesses and successes of the Weimar Republic  Collapse of the Republic 9. Italy and the Rise of Mussolini and the Fascist Party 1922-1943.  Benito Mussolini’s Background  Factors that contributed to Mussolini’s rise to power.  Stages of his rise  Mussolini’s home policies.  Mussolini’s Foreign policies. 10. Germany and the Rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party  Hitler’s Background  Reasons for Hitler’s rise to power  Stages of Hitler’s rise to power  Hitler’s home polices.  Hitler’s foreign policies 11. The Second World War 1939-1945.  Causes of the War  Course of the War  Results of the War. 12. The United Nations Organisation.  Aims of the UN  Structure/Organisation of the UN  Successes and failures of the UN. 13. The Cold War 1945-1991  Definition  Origins and causes of the Cold War  Main aspects of the Cold War 6

 Cold War Crises 1948-1963  End of the Cold War.

OUTLINE OF EUROPE BEFORE 1870. (Background to European History) Before 1870, most European states were small and had no proper leadership. Some of the bigger states that existed practiced imperialism (the influence of one state in another). Before 1870, some European states were; 1. German speaking states- there was no big Nation or state called Germany. Instead, there were small German speaking states under the leadership of states such as Austria, Denmark and France e.g. Alsace and Lorraine. The dominant German state was Prussia that was ruled by King William. 2. Britain- Britain was the biggest state in Europe under a monarch. It was united and strong. However, Britain followed a policy of Splendid Isolation, which meant non involvement in the affairs of mainland Europe. Being an island, Britain did not regard her as being part of Europe. Britain only came into European affairs when other countries threatened her interests. Britain’s interests were to build a strong Navy, extend her colonial Empire and to protect her commercial industry. Britain became the most powerful colonial power with a big commonwealth Empire. 3. France- France was one of the most powerful states in Europe, ruled by Napoleon. Napoleon waged a number of devastating Napoleonic wars in Europe. France was a traditional enemy of Britain because of competition. She had the strongest army and controlled some German speaking states. Her aim was to crush the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. 4. Austria-Hungary- This state was first called Austria and was ruled by the Hapsburg Family. This family intermarried with the different royal families. Austria was made up of many tribes e.g. Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Poles, Serbs, Romanians and 7

Hungarians. Austria and Hungary combined to form Austria- Hungary, which became a dual Monarch under Emperor Frank Joseph 5. Russia- This was the biggest European country in terms of size. She was ruled by an autocratic family with the title of Tsar or Czar. Most of the People in Russia were backwards and illiterate because of suppression from the ruling family. Russia had no sea outlet, as such she desired to control some of the Balkan states to have access to sea. This brought her into the Balkan Region and brought her into conflict with Britain and Austria over the control of the Mediterranean Sea and the Balkans respectively. 6. The Balkan States-these were small states that were ruled by the Ottoman family. The Balkan states were collectively known as the Ottoman Empire. The Empire stretched from the borders of Austria to include Hungary, Russia, Turkey and North Africa. Other states in the Ottoman Empire were Denmark, Yugoslavia, Sweden, Bulgaria, Poland and Czechoslovakia. The Ottoman Empire was made different areas, with people of different languages and religions (Christians and Moslems) under the control of the Turks who were Moslems. As a result, the Empire was weakened because of internal conflicts. Many races broke away and became independent states. The remaining small states came under the control of the big European states. Russia wanted to control the Balkan sates so as to have sea outlet. Britain and France had commercial interests in the Balkans. Austria depended on the Balkans for survival of her Empire. After Germany was unified, Bismarck feared that the Balkans would join France against Germany. Due to these factors, the Balkan region became a sensitive area, which led to the outbreak of the First World War. 7. Italy- Before 1870, there was no country called Italy but small states that were ruled by Austria. The people were poor, backwards and illiterate. One an called Mazzini rose up and united the small Italian states through war into one country called Italy. 8. Other Countries- other notable states at the time were Holland, Spain and Portugal. These did not have much conflict with the other European Countries. They concentrated on Trade, voyages of discovery and the exploration of other continents.

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THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY. Germany as a state started to exist in 1871. Before then there was no state in Europe called Germany. Instead, there was a confederation of about 360 states each independent in name. Powerful neighbors such as France, Demark, Austria and Hungary continuously harassed them. Hungary regarded herself as leader and protector of these German states. However, by 1815, these states were reduced to 39. Prussia emerged as the largest and most powerful of the German States. Prussia aimed at uniting all small German states under the brilliant leadership of Otto Von Bismarck. Bismarck became the chancellor of Prussia in 1862 under King William I. OTTO VON BISMARCK. Bismarck was born in 1815 to a middle class family distantly related to the Royal family. He belonged to the Junker Class or the land owning gentry or aristocrats. After obtaining a University degree, Bismarck worked as a civil servant in the Prussian Government. Later, he joined politics and served the government in various portfolios including that of a diplomat. In 1847, he was elected as a member of the Prussian Diet or parliament. In 1848, there was a Liberal Revolution in the German states. The Liberals were advocating for a united Germany under democratic rule. Bismarck was an aristocrat and an authoritarian who was very much against democracy. Bismarck wanted power in the hands of the King with an elected Parliament. By this time, Bismarck had become a very good public speaker and he opposed the liberal view with all his force. However, the reigning King William IV of Prussia sent him to serve as an ambassador in a foreign nation to prevent him from causing confusion in the Confederate Parliament. While a Member of Parliament, Bismarck became aware of the fact that there were real problems and weaknesses in individual German states. As a result, he began to favor the uniting of all German states under the leadership of Prussia. Since Austria was a dominant power in the German states, Bismarck regarded Austria as a stumbling block and enemy to German Unification. In 1858, King William IV’s rule came to an end and he was succeeded by his brother King William I. King William I was against the Liberals and he appointed Military chiefs 9

who were also against the Liberals. From 1857 to 1862 Bismarck served as Prussian ambassador, first at Petersburg in Russia and at Paris in France. In 1862, Bismarck was called back by telegram to Berlin and appointed Chancellor by King William I who had the same views as Bismarck on the unification of Germany. The destiny of Prussia was at last in the hands of Bismarck and with it the destiny of not only Germany but of Europe as well. Bismarck believed that nothing could be done without the use of force. It was for this reason that he stated that “The greatest question of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolutions of the majority but by blood and iron”. To Bismarck, affairs in European politics were not determined by “right but by might”. Bismarck also believed that wrong must sometimes be committed in the interest of the States, particularly if the state is Prussia. This belief was called RALPOLITIK. As such, Bismarck was able to convince himself that he was carrying out the will of God.

WARS OF UNIFICATION OF GERMANY. The unification of Germany was made possible with the appointment of Bismarck. General Helmut Von Moltke was put in charge of the Prussian army. He organized the army in modern times. 1. WAR 1-Prussia and Austria-Hungary Vs Denmark-1864. In 1864, Bismarck engaged Denmark in a war over two territories of Holstein and Schleswig which were Germany speaking states. In this war, Prussia allied with AustriaHungary with the understanding that the two would share the two territories after the defeat of Denmark. This was a deliberate move by Bismarck who wanted to have an excuse to attack Austria-Hungary next. Within a few weeks, Denmark was defeated by the two states. Prussia got Schleswig while Austria acquired Holstein. 2. WAR 2-Austria-Hungary Vs Prussia-1866 Bismarck already considered Austria-Hungary as a stumbling block to the unification of Germany. Therefore, Bismarck started inciting the Germans of Holstein to demand to be part of Prussia. The Austrian Government tried to put down this rebellion, but Prussia decided to declare war on Austria on the pretext of protecting Germany citizens in 10

Holstein. Austria was finally defeated at the Battle of Sadowa. The effects of this war were; 

The war led to the signing of the treaty of Prague

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Austria lost Holstein to Prussia.

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It led to the creation of the North German Confederation under the leadership of Bismarck.

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Four million German speaking people were incorporated into Prussia.

3. WAR 3- Prussia Vs France-1870-71. (The Franco-Prussian War). The causes of the war involved the appointment of a Prussian Prince Leopold of Belgium to the Spanish throne. France felt threatened by this and decided to protest the appointment. The French sent a telegram to King William I who was on holiday at a place called EMS. This telegram was politely requesting the Prussian King to advise Prince Leopold not to accept the Spanish throne. The Prussian King also politely turned down this request. Unfortunately, this telegram which became known as the EMS Telegram passed through Bismarck’s office on its way to France. Bismarck deliberately changed and manipulated the contents of the Telegram to make them sound as if King William had had insulted the French ambassador and the French people. This was a deliberate move by Bismarck to draw France into a war with Prussia. As a result, the tension between the two countries increased and the French were finally manipulated into declaring war on Prussia. France was finally defeated at the Battle of Sedan in 1871. The effects of this war were; 

The German Empire was created which comprised of Prussia, the Confederation of North German States of Holstein and Schleswig and the Southern German speaking states. King William became the first Emperor of German Empire and became known as Kaiser William I while Bismarck became the first Germany Chancellor.

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France was required to pay 200million franks to the new Germany as reparations.

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France was also forced to give up her two rich provinces of Alsace and Lorraine which were also highly industrialized. 11

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Germany troops were also supposed to occupy eastern France until the indemnity of 200million franks was paid.

This war left France extremely bitter and with a desire to revenge against Germany. THE PROCESS OF UNIFICATION. There were two views about the process of Unification of Germany. One was that it was as a ersult of a long laid plan while the other was that it was as a result of Manipulation and opportunism. It was as a result of a long laid plan; 

According to a report by Benjamin Disraeli, the then British Prime Minister of a meeting with Bismarck in 1862, he stated that, “What an extraordinary man Bismarck is! He meets e for the first time and tells me all he is going to do- he will attack Denmark in order to Holstein and Schleswig, he will put Austria out of the Confederation and then he will attack France- an extraordinary man!”.

It was also as a result of manipulation and opportunism; 

Bismarck confessed that “By himself, an individual can create nothing by himself, he can only wait until he hears God’s footsteps resounding through events and then spring forward to grasp the helm of his mantle and act” Bismarck also remarked that “many paths led to my goal. I had to try all of them one after the other, the most dangerous at the end”.

THE NEW AGE IN EUROPE. After the creation of the Germany Empire in 1871, the Balance of power in Europe was destroyed. Germany became the first greatest military power. The Germans were feared in 12

Europe while the German people had great respect for their army and Bismarck. Right or wrong never mattered to the Germans. The only thing that mattered was the good of the Fatherland. This meant that Germany could do anything as long as it led to greater power for Germany. This philosophy in German politics became known as Ralpolitik. France was no longer a dominant power in Europe as she had been defeated in the FrancoPrussian War. As a result, France developed a negative attitude towards the new Germany and resented the war reparation payments to Germany. France also resented the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. France was humiliated and wanted a war a war of revenge against Germany.

THE GERMANY EMPIRE (BISMARCK’S GERMANY 1871-1890) Bismarck ruled the German Empire from 1871 to 1890. During this period, he dominated international politics. Bismarck put in place domestic policies that were aimed at consolidating his power and ensuring the unity of Germany. On the other hand, the foreign policies were aimed at preserving the power of the new Germany by preventing an outbreak of War in Europe. This was done through the system of alliances that were aimed at isolating France and preventing a war of revenge. BISMARCK’S HOME/DOMESTIC POLICIES. Aims of Bismarck’s hoe policies were; 

He wanted to consolidate power to himself

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He wanted to eliminate all opposition

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He wanted to ensure Germany unity

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He also wanted to achieve economic development for Germany.

Bismarck ruled Germany from 1871 to 1890. During this period, he faced a number of political problems especially from the Catholics and the Socialists. a) Resistance from the Catholics. 13

The German Catholics did not like the command position of Prussia in the new Empire. As such, the Catholic Church preached a dogma of PAPAL INFALIBILITY , which demanded that all loyal Catholics should obey the official statements of the Pope without question. In 1871, a Catholic Central group was formed and Bismarck was politically threatened. As a result, Bismarck launched a direct attack on the Roman Catholic Church. As a result, Bismarck instituted the following laws; 

In 1871, Bismarck broke off all diplomatic relations with the Vatican.

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In 1872, he introduced suppressive laws that were directed against the Catholics Priests who preached politics were arrested and charged with the “misuse of the pulpit”. Church controlled schools were brought under Government control. Religious societies such as the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) were expelled from Germany while others were dissolved.

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Bismarck also introduced the MAY LAWS. These laws brought the training, appointment and the work of priests under government control. The Catholics who disobeyed or opposed the Laws were imprisoned, dismissed from work or exiled. Civil Marriages were also made legal, hence reducing the authority of the Church over family matters. This campaign or struggle against the Church was referred to as Kulturkampf (Struggle for Civilisation).

b) Resistance from the Socialists. The Socialist Party also alarmed Bismarck. The Socialists believed in the teachings of KARL MARX who advocated for the overthrowing of the capitalist governments and their replacement by governments controlled by workers. The social democratic Party condemned militarism and demanded for the creation of a Socialist state where the government would own and control major industries on behalf of the people. After 1875, the Socialists became a threat to National Security. In 1876, there were two assassination attempts on the Kaiser. Bismarck blamed the Socialists and introduced Exceptional Laws to deal with them. Under these laws; 

All Socialist meetings and publications that supported Socialism were banned.

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The Socialist Party was also banned.

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Many people were imprisoned and exiled.

c) Social Reforms. 14

In order to deal further with the problem of Socialism, Bismarck promoted Social Reforms to benefit workers so as to prevent them from joining Socialism. He introduced insurance schemes against sickness, old age and accidents. d) The Presence of Racial Minority Bismarck thought that the racial minorities were an obstacle to complete Germany unity. There were a few million non German-speaking people e.g. Poles, Danes and the French within the Germany Empire. Bismarck tried to solve this problem by introducing the Policy of Prussianisation/Germanisation. This was done to ensure unity in Germany. Some of the features of Prussianisation were; 

Introduction of a Prussian code of Law

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The Prussian ark became the only currency

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The Education system was based on the Prussian Model

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German was introduced as the official Language in order to assimilate the minority groups.

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The Government also encouraged Germans to buy up properties from non Germans.

e) Economic Problems. German industries also faced a lot of problems as a result of stiff competition from outside. To ensure economic and industrial development, Bismarck introduced the Triple Law of 1879. This was done to protect the three main German industries i.e. the Manufacturing, commercial and Agriculture industries against outside importations by introducing high tariffs. Bismarck wanted to make Germany less dependant on imported goods and make Germany as self sufficient as possible economically. f) Nationalisation of the Railway System The Railway system became state owned so that the low transporting rates would be introduced to benefit the local industries. The Government also subsidized the shipping lines to enable them compete with other countries such as Britain. These measures led to the development of the Germany industries.

BISMARCK’S FOREIGN POLICIES. 15

Aims of Bismarck’s Foreign Policies. 

To preserve the Frankfurt Treaty that led to the creation of the Germany Empire.

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To maintain peace in Europe by a policy of Germany strength and domination militarily and economically.

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To isolate France because Bismarck feared that with the help of another country, France would attack Germany and revenge to get back the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine

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To dominate European diplomacy with the set up of governments in Europe.

To achieve these aims, Bismarck created a system of Alliances and held the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885.

BISMARCK’S ALLIANCES a. The Three Emperors’ League or the Drekaiserbund Treaty of 1872. In 1872, Bismarck persuaded the Emperors of Russia (Tsar Alexander) and AustriaHungary (Frank Joseph) to sign a treaty of friendship and understanding with the German Emperor Kaiser William I. This alliance was called the Three Emperors League or the Drekaiserbund Treaty. The terms of the Treaty were; 

All agreed to isolate France

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They also agreed to crush Socialism and Republicanism in the three Empires.

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They agreed to consult each other on international matters especially over the Balkans states.

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The Treaty was to be renewed every after 3 years.

b. The Dual Alliance -1879. The members of the alliance were Germany and Austria. This was a secret alliance that was signed between Austria and Germany in 1879. This was after Russia and AustriaHungary quarreled over the Balkan states. Bismarck held a meeting in Berlin to discuss the matter. At this meeting, Bismarck sided with Austria, this offended Russia. The terms of this alliance were; 

To isolate France

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To assist each other if one of them was attacked by two or more countries but to remain neutral if attacked by only one.

c. In 1881 and 1884, the Drekaiserbund Treaty was renewed with the same members under the same terms. d. The Triple Alliance of 1882 The members of the Triple Alliance were Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The alliance was signed in 1882. Italy formed this alliance with Germany and Austria after she was offended by the French occupation of Tunisia, which Italy considered as her territory. Bismarck had diplomatically encouraged the French occupation of Tunisia. The terms of the alliance were; 

To isolate France. This alliance deepened the isolation of France.

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To assist each other if attacked by a Fourth power

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Italy also pledged not to be involved in any war against Britain.

e. The Secret Reinsurance Treaty-1887 Bismarck was still determined to prevent an alliance between France and Russia. He also wanted to avoid fighting on two fronts in case of an outbreak of war. Therefore, after the end of the Drekaiserbund Treaty, Bismarck realized that that Russia could easily join France to attack Germany. As a result, Bismarck secretly approached Russia to sign the Reinsurance Treaty to reinsure Germany against an attack from France. The Terms of the Alliance were; 

Germany recognized the Russian Influence in the Balkans.

Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and Germany would remain neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria. The two would help each other if one was attacked by two or more countries 

Agreed to isolate France.

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The alliance was to be renewed after three years.

However, it was becoming increasingly difficult for Bismarck to reconcile the interests of the Triple Alliance and the Secret Reinsurance Treaty due to the hatred that existed between Austria and Russia over the Balkans. 17

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE-1884-1885 The Berlin Conference was also part of Bismarck’s Foreign policies. Until the 1880s, Bismarck was not interested in acquiring colonies for Germany. He regarded Germany as a European Power which did not need any territories outside Europe. He believed that Germany could be expanded within Europe. However, some sectors of the German population felt that Germany was being left out in the colonial scramble to her disadvantage. The industrialists especially begun to persuade Bismarck to revise his colonial policy. In addition, Bismarck wanted to control European Diplomacy and prevent quarrels over colonies in Africa to disturb the peace in Europe if war broke out. Hence Bismarck called for and chaired the Berlin Colonial Conference. The Conference resulted into the peaceful division of the African Continent. Germany also acquired South West Africa (Namibia), Togo, Cameroon and in 1890, Tanganyika or Germany East Africa. THE FALL OF BISMARCK Kaiser William I who had supported Bismarck’s policies died in 1888, he was succeeded by Fredrick. Fredrick hated Bismarck because he wanted a more Liberal and democratic government. Fredrick died from cancer three months after ascending to the throne. A 28 year old Kaiser William II succeeded him. By 1890, the young Kaiser differed with Bismarck over the following; 

Socialists: Kaiser William II wanted to do away with Bismarck’s anti socialist Laws. He wanted to come to terms with the Socialist Democratic Party while Bismarck wanted to crush them.

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Colonies: The Kaiser wanted a policy of Colonial Expansion for Germany while Bismarck wanted to confine German expansion to Europe.

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Navy: Kaiser William II wanted to construct a Greater Germany Navy to challenge the British naval supremacy. In short, he wanted Germany to dominate every country in Europe regardless of the consequences. On the other hand, Bismarck was careful not to provoke other countries especially Britain.

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Foreign Policy: Kaiser William II favored giving support to Austria to acquire some territories in the Balkans openly while Bismarck it secretly. This therefore meant that Kaiser William II did not support Bismarck’s system of alliances

As a result of these differences, Bismarck was forced to resign after being at the center of Germany and European diplomacy for ore than 20years. This marked the fall of Otto Von Bismarck.

QUESTIONS 1. Write briefly on aspects of Bismarck’s Germany under three of the following headings; (a) Bismarck and the Catholic Church (b) Bismarck and the Socialists (c) Objectives/Aims of his Foreign Policy (d) Reasons for the fall of Bismarck.

2. What problems did Bismarck face at home and how did he solve them between 1870 and 1890? {20} 3. What were the aims of Bismarck’s home policies? How did he achieve them between 1870 and 1890? {4, 16}

4. What were the aims of Bismarck’s Foreign policy? How did he achieve them between 1870 and 1890? {4, 16}. 5. (a) Describe Bismarck’s System of Alliances between 1870 and 1890. (b) What was the reaction of other European Countries to these Alliances? (16,4)

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(b) Did Bismarck manage to isolate France? - What led to the fall of Bismarck? - Why did Italy fight on the side of the allied Forces in the First World War?

THE BRITISH POLICY OF SPLENDID ISOLATION Definition: The Policy of Splendid Isolation was a policy that Britain followed in the 19th Century of not involving herself in the affairs of mainland Europe. Therefore, Britain did not bother to have allies.

WHY DID BRITAIN ADOPT/FOLLOW THE POLICY? Britain followed the policy of Splendid Isolation due to the following reasons;  Britain’s Geographical Position- Britain is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel. Therefore, she was apparently safe in her island Kingdom which had not suffered any invasion for many years. Besides, Britain could easily defend herself against any invasions since she had the best Navy in Europe at the time.  Overseas Expansion- Britain wanted a peaceful Europe so that she could continue to without interruption. During this time, the British Empire comprised of ¼ of the world population. Therefore, Britain was pre-occupied with her overseas expansion. As such, she saw no need of taking part in European quarrels, so she isolated herself.  Self Sufficiency economically and militarily- Britain enjoyed her naval, commercial and industrial Supremacy. She was the center of world trade and Banking. Half of the World Merchant shipping was British. In the 1880s, she was still producing more coal and steel than any other country. Militarily, Britain had the strongest Navy in the world. With this monopoly, Britain saw no need of involving herself in European affairs since she did not face any challenges from other European countries.  The French Revolution- Britain also wanted to preserve her Monarch after the French Revolution of 1879, which brought an end to the Monarch in France. Britain wanted to avoid a similar revolution by isolating herself.

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 The Crimean War of 1854-1856-The Crimean War involved Russia and Turkey over the Balkan Region. In this war, Britain fully supported Turkey. The bitter experiences of death and misery caused by the War forced the British Politicians and the public to urge the British government to limit Britain’s costly commitments outside Britain especially in Europe.

WHY THE POLICY WAS ABANDONED Between 1893 and 1902, Britain was forced to abandon the policy of Splendid Isolation because of events that were happening on the international scene. These events threatened the British Naval supremacy and the entire British Empire. The following forced the British to abandon the policy; a)The System of Alliances- Other European countries were busy making alliances in case of war. This made Britain aware that she would be on her own if war broke out. Britain was especially threatened when her two enemies Russia and France signed the Dual Entente in 1894. b) The Provocative Foreign Policies of Kaiser William II- From 1890, when Kaiser William II became the Germany Emperor, his foreign policies provoked Britain as follows; 

He started challenging the British Naval, colonial and industrial supremacy e.g. in 1906, the British introduced an advanced battle ship called the DREADNOUGHT, this was the first of its kind in Naval history. It had heavier guns and it was faster. However, in 1907, Germany started producing an imitational Dreadnought called the U-BOAT. This was a direct provocation to Britain.

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Kaiser William also sent a congratulatory message to Paul Kruger of the Transvaal for his successful crushing of the British Coup Plot during the Jameson Raid in 1895. This was also a direct provocation that contributed to the abandoning of the policy.

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The Germany government also gave moral and material support to the Boers during the 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902.

c) The 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902- this was also significant to the abandonment of the Policy of Splendid Isolation because it revealed the weaknesses of the British

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Army. This is because the British suffered a series of defeats by the ill equipped Boer army and the prolonged Guerrilla warfare. d) Colonial Rivalries- Britain faced colonial rivalries in North Africa from France, in South East Asia from Russia and in the Middle East from Germany because Kaiser William wanted to build a railway line from Berlin to Baghdad. In addition, Germany also challenged Britain as a world leading colonial power at the Berlin Colonial Conference. e) The Armenian Massacre of 1896- The Armenian Massacre that was inflicted by the Turks in 1896 also acted as an eye opener for the British. This involved the killing of about 6,000 Armenian minorities in Turkey. This was a violation of international laws. Gladstone, the then British Prime Minister led a campaign against the Turks and approached the other countries to take action. However, other countries did not respond. As such, the British felt the disadvantages of isolation. The British also realized that it was dangerous to be isolated. Therefore, the British decided to abandon the policy.

HOW THE POLICY WAS ABANDONED. Britain abandoned the policy of Splendid Isolation through the signing of various alliances with other countries. These were; 1. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance-1902 This was the first step that Britain took towards the abandoning of the policy. This was signed by Britain and Japan. The terms were; 

Japan agreed to protect British possessions in South East Asia against German and Russian Imperialism.



Britain and Japan also promised to assist each other if two or more countries attacked one of them.

2. The Anglo- French Entente Cordiale-1904. After being angered by Kaiser William II’s encouragement of the Boers in the 2nd AngloBoer War and the suspicions of increased naval competition by Germany, Britain decided to become friends with France. Britain begun to settle her differences with France in Africa over colonies. This resulted into the signing of the Anglo-French Entente Cordiale (friendly agreement) of 1904. The terms were; 22



Britain recognized the French occupation of Morocco and in turn, France recognized the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan.



They agreed to hold regular consultations on economic and military issues.



They also agreed to assist each other against German aggression.

3. The Triple Entente-1907. In 1907, Britain finally abandoned the policy of splendid isolation when she signed the Triple Entente. France wanted her two allies to come close together. Therefore, Britain and Russia settled their differences over Persia, Tibet and Afghanistan, 

The treaty was anti-Germany; it prevented Germany from penetrating the Middle East.



It was a military alliance to support each other if attacked.



The members also pledged to work together to counteract the effects of the Triple Alliance.

CONCLUSION. In 1907, there existed two distinct international groups in Europe i.e. the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. This was the beginning of rivalries between the two armed camps. Each was suspicious of the other. This created world tension and increased the chances of the outbreak of a world war.

QUESTIONS. 1. Define the British policy of Splendid Isolation. Why and how was the Policy abandoned? {20}

2. Why did Britain follow the Policy of Splendid Isolation up to 1895? Why and how was the Policy abandoned? {7,7,7} 3. Discuss Britain’s Diplomatic position in the 19th Century. {20}

4. Why, How and When did Britain abandon her policy of Splendid Isolation? {20}. 23

IMPERIALISM. Imperialism was the extension of European economic, social and political influences in underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia to benefit European countries. This was usually done through the acquisition of territories by major European Countries such as Britain, France and Germany. This new imperialism took place in the 2nd half of the 20th Century. Imperialism started in the 16th century. However, between 1870 and 1914, European countries quickly acquired colonies especially in Africa. This was what was referred to as the “Scramble for Africa”.

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884-1885. To avoid war among European countries, especially not to antagonize Britain, Bismarck organized and chaired the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885 in Berlin. The Conference was held in order to divide the African continent among European countries peacefully. This division of Africa was referred to as the “Partition of Africa”. The results of the Berlin Conference were;  Africa was partitioned among European Countries.  European countries agreed to settle all border disputes between the countries involved.  The was to be effective occupation of all the territories acquired.  All European Countries accepted the freedom of trade on all the major rivers and water ways.  Areas already proclaimed as protectorates before 1884 were accepted and recognized.  The European countries agreed to sign treaties with African Chiefs.  The Congo Free State was to be given to King Leopold of Belgium.

REASONS FOR THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA. 24

European countries rushed to acquire colonies in Africa due to the following reasons; a. Economic Reasons The Economic reasons were the main reasons for European acquisition of territories in Africa. These came about as a result of the Industrial Revolution in Europe. The Industrial Revolution created a high demand for raw materials such as rubber, sugarcane, tobacco, cocoa. This was used in the European Industries to manufacture finished goods. Mass production of goods led to the demand for markets for the surplus goods. This also led to the acquisition of territories. Other economic reasons included the need for to invest surplus capital in ventures such as agriculture and the mining industries especially after the discovery of minerals in South Africa. The discovery of minerals in South Africa also led to the acquisition of colonies because Europeans anticipated the discovery of more minerals in the interior of Africa.

b. Political Reasons. European Countries also acquired colonies in Africa as a way of solving their political problems in Europe e.g. Bismarck encouraged France to colonise territories in Africa to lessen tensions between France and Germany over Alsace and Lorraine. European countries also acquired colonies in Africa for the Balance of Power. This meant that countries such as France that had lost territories in Europe and lost political power wanted to make up for the loss by acquiring territories in Africa. Colonies were also obtained fro Prestige and Glory. This meant that the more territories a country had, the more powerful she was perceived e.g. Germany acquired territories for Prestige.

c. Social Reasons. Some European Countries acquired territories to resettle their surplus population due to land shortages in Europe. Some acquired territories to resettle misfits in European societies such as convicts. Colonies were also acquired to test their newly discovered medicines and inventions before using them in Europe to determine their effects. European countries also wanted to use colonies to solve their problems of poverty, ignorance and disease.

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d. Strategic Reasons Another reason for the European acquisition of territories in Africa was the establishment of military strategic points such as naval bases. This led European countries to take over certain coastal areas in Africa. For example, Britain extended her control over the Cape Colony to establish a naval base. Britain also took over Egypt and Aden to safeguard the trade routes through the Suez Canal and the Indian Ocean.

e. Humanitarian Reasons Humanitarian reasons were as a result of Missionary activities in Africa and the Far East. The early missionaries insisted on ending the slave trade, evangelization, teaching literacy and methods of hygiene. However, due to lawlessness in their areas of influence, their work was a complete failure. For this reason, the missionaries asked their home governments for help. Through this request. Colonization came to Africa and the Far East.

REASONS FOR THE LOW DEMAND OF AFRICAN COLONIES BEFORE 1870. Before 1870, European Countries were no really interested in African colonies due to the following reasons; i.

Africa had no economic incentives for European countries. Most European governments saw the acquisition of colonies as an expensive venture. This was because they knew very little about the existence of abundant wealth resources. Therefore, Europeans had no economic interest in Africa.

ii.

Europeans had no Knowledge of the African Continent. They considered Africa as a “Dark Continent”.

iii.

Lack of a reliable means of Transport also acted as an obstacle to Europeans to come to Africa. This prevented the penetration of the African interior.

iv.

Thick forests and bad climatic conditions also led to the low demand for African colonies. Some African areas such as the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Valleys were hot

26

with jungles and thick forests. This hindered early colonialists from acquiring colonies in Africa. v.

Tropical diseases such as Malaria, bilharzias, sleeping sickness prevented colonialists from coming to Africa before medicines were discovered.

vi.

Unnavigable rivers were also another obstacle to European acquisition of territories. Swamps, rapids and waterfalls made most rivers of Africa not to be navigable. This made most colonialists to believe that it was impossible to penetrate the interior of the African continent using boats.

vii.

Due to fear of hostile tribes, early colonialists were also hindered from getting colonies in Africa. Some tribes could not welcome white missionaries while others had the reputation of being cannibals.

viii.

Some colonialists were afraid of the existence of wild beasts such as dangerous snakes, lions, biting insects such as mosquitoes in the jungles of tropical Africa.

ix.

Geographical barriers such as mountains and deserts further hindered the colonization of Africa before 1870.

FACTORS THAT FACILITATED THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA AFTER 1870. Factors were things that made it easier for Europeans to come to Africa and acquire colonies after 1870. These were; Explorers- through the work of explorers such as David Livingstone, who explored most of Central Africa and De Brazza who explored the Congo Basin, Europe became knowledgeable about the African Continent. The development of Transport such as the Steamship was another factor that contributed to the Scramble for Africa. This made it easier to penetrate the interior of Africa. The discovery of medicines such as quinine to cure some tropical diseases such as malaria mad it easier for Europeans to colonise Africa. Men of enterprise such as Cecil Rhodes and his BSA Company also facilitated the Scramble for Africa. 27

The discovery of modern weapons such as the Maxim gun also made it easier to colonise Africa because resistant African chiefs could easily be defeated.

EXAMPLES OF IMPERIALISM NORTH OF THE EQUATOR. 1. The Occupation of Egypt-1882 The Occupation of Egypt caused conflicts between the British and the French. The French were the first to have an interest in Egypt. The Suez Canal was designed by a Frenchman called Ferdinand De Lesseps and the French government financed the building of the canal. It was completed and opened in1869. The Egyptian ruler Khedive Ishmael acquired half of the shares while the French got the other half. However, in 1875, Khedive Ishmael went bankrupt and decided to sell his 50% of the shares to France. France hesitated to buy and Khedive approached Britain. Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister at the time quickly bought the shares. Overnight, the British controlled part of Egypt. This created enmity between the British and the French. When Khedive Ishmael died, his son Tewfik became the ruler. Arabi Pasha rebelled against him to gain his independence. Tewfik asked for help from the French colonialists but France hesitated again. The French government did not want to be drawn into another war after the Franco-Prussian war of 1871. Tewfik was forced to ask for help from the British. Arabi Pasha was defeated and the British occupied Egypt. The French fleet was ordered to leave Egypt. This worsened the enmity between Britain and France.

2. The Occupation of Sudan-1885. The British colonised Sudan in 1885. However, a religious fanatic called Mahdi attacked them and drove that out until they were forced to withdraw. The British leader General Gordon was killed. This left the British with a spirit of revenge. The task of the re-occupation of Sudan was given to Lord Kitchener. He was given 2,000 soldiers and 5 gunboats on the Nile River. He was also given instructions to lay down a railway line from Egypt to Sudan. The British were interested in a place called Fashoda, which was a fort on the upper Nile. The French were also interested in Fashoda and sent their own man called Captain Merchand to occupy Sudan and take over Fashoda.

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Britain claimed Sudan by right of conquest and she did not want any other country to occupy any part of the Nile Valley. Britain’s other aim was to occupy all the land from the Cape in South Africa to Cairo in Egypt. France also wanted to claim Fashoda because she wanted a line of colonies from West Africa to the Gulf of Eden on the East Coast. So Fashoda was important to both countries. However, Captain Merchand reached Fashoda first and hoisted the French flag. It took Lord Kitchener some years to reach Fashoda as he had to defeat a force of Dervishes at Orduman and revenge the death of General Gordon. The two military leaders met at Fashoda and almost fought though the French soldiers were outnumbered and had inferior weapons. This incident was referred to as The Fashoda Incident of 1898. When the British heard the news, they threatened war on the French. France was not ready for war and the French government instructed Captain Merchand to withdraw. The British finally occupied Sudan. This worsened the enmity between the French and the British.

3. The Occupation of Morocco- 1905-1906. The French Occupation of Morocco created tension between France and Britain on one hand and Germany on the other. Kaiser William II wanted to test the strength of the Friendship between Britain and France after the signing of the Entente Cordiale in 1904. Kaiser William II chose Morocco as his venue. Though Morocco was under the control of the Sultan, France was in the process of colonizing it. The Kaiser protested against this and declared the sovereignty of Morocco. He also pledged support for the Sultan’s rule in case of an attack by a foreign power. Kaiser William II also called for an international conference to discuss the future of Morocco. The Conference was held in Algeciras in Spain in 1906. Twelve nations attended and the majority supported the French colonization of Morocco, Britain led this support. As for Germany, she suffered a moral defeat. This proved the strength of the Entente Cordiale. This created tension between Germany and the British AND French.

EXAMPLES OF IMPERIALISM SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR.

29

 The First Anglo-Boer War of 1880- 1881. This was a War of Independence for the Boers from the British who wanted to colonise the whole of South Africa.  The Second Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902- this was a political struggle between the British and the Boers. The British were determined to create their Cape to Cairo dream while the Boers were equally determined to maintain their independence and had their own imperialist ambitions.

IMPORTANCE/SIGNIFICANCE/CONSEQUENCES OF THE SCRAMBLE. The Scramble for Africa brought Europeans into the interior of Africa with their traditions, economics, political and religious beliefs. Africans became affected through all these challenges and were forced to adopt some of the European cultures. This led to; 

Population increase in Africa



Colonialism in Africa



Loss of political power for African rulers.



The Spread of foreign diseases.



The creation of artificial boundaries.



The disregard of African Traditions and Culture.



The introduction of literacy and civilisation.

QUESTIONS. 1. With reference to the partition of Africa; (a) Outline the reasons for the low demand for African colonies before 1870. (b) Account for the increased demand for Colonies after 1870 (c) Describe one incident in the Franco-German Colonial Rivalry. {7,7,7}

2. Define the term Imperialism. Why did European Countries take part in the Scramble for Africa? What measures were taken to avoid armed conflict among European Countries? {2, 12, 6}.

3. Why did European Countries obtain Colonies in Africa? Discuss the agreements made at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. {14,6}. 30

THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-1918. The First World War was the first global war which was fought on an international scale. The war was started by the two European military camps of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente (Allied Powers). These two military camps had been in existence from 1907, and since then, they provoked each other and created international tension that finally led to the outbreak of the War. There has been a lot of debates as to who was to blame for the war. Many historians have agreed that Germany, in particular, Kaiser William II was to blame for causing the war. Therefore, at the end of the First World War, Germany was found guilty of causing the war and was punished at the Versailles Peace Settlement in 1918.

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR. Main Events that Led to the Outbreak of the 1st World War. a) The 1st Moroccan Crisis-1905 to 1906This was a European crisis started by Germany in an attempt to test and break up the Anglo-French Entente Cordiale with its understanding that France would recognize the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan, while Britain would recognize the French occupation of Morocco. Germany announced that it would assist the Sultan of Morocco to maintain his country’s independence. Germany also demanded for an international conference to discuss Morocco’s future. A conference was held in Algeciras in Spain in 1906. The British believed that if the Germans had their way, it would be an acknowledgement of Germany’s diplomatic domination. To the amazement of Germany, the majority of the countries at the conference supported the French demand to control Morocco. This showed Germany that the friendship between Britain and France was strong and that if a war broke out, the two would help each other. This created international tension that contributed to the outbreak of the 1st World War.

31

b) The 2nd Moroccan Crisis (Agadier Incident) 1911. This was a further development in the Moroccan situation. French troops occupied FEZ, the Moroccan capital in an attempt to put down a rebellion against the Sultan of Morocco whose appointment had been influenced by the French. Germany decided to send a Gunboat called Panther with the Kaiser on board to the Moroccan Seaport of Agadier and demanded that France should withdraw her troops. The British became worried in case Germany acquired a possible naval base for threatening the British trade routes. In order to strengthen France’s resistance, David Lloyd George , the then British Prime Minster, in his famous Mansion House speech, warned Germany that Britain would not stand by and be taken advantage of while her interests and those of her allies were threatened. Britain also pledged to support France militarily. Therefore, the French stood firm and were not ready to give in to German demands. Eventually, the German gunboat was removed from Agadier. The Germans agreed to recognize the French occupation of Morocco in exchange fro a part of the French Congo. This was seen as a triumph for the Entente powers. This incident also created world tension that contributed to the outbreak of the WW1.

c) The Balkan Wars/Crises 1912-1913. 

The 1st Balkan War broke out in 1912 when Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro (calling themselves the Balkan League) attacked Turkey in order to destroy the Turkish/Ottoman Empire and share the states it controlled. After the defeat of Turkey, Germany and Britain organized a peace conference in London. The resulting settlement apportioned the former Turkish lands among the members of the Balkan League. However, Serbia was not happy with her gains. She wanted Albania which would have given her an outlet to sea. But Austria and Germany insisted that Albania had to be independent. This was a deliberate Austrian move to prevent Serbia from becoming too powerful.



The 2nd Balkan War broke out in 1913 when the Bulgarians were also dissatisfied with what they got after the 1st Balkan War. They had hoped to get Macedonia which controlled an important an important seaport of Seronika. 32

Bulgaria therefore attacked Serbia starting the 2nd Balkan War in 1913. The Bulgarian plan backfired badly when Greece, Romania and Turkey supported Serbia. The Bulgarians were defeated and by the Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgarian forfeited most of her gains from the 1st Balkan War. As a result, Serbia became more powerful and this threatened Austria. The increasing Anglo-German influences in the Balkans created a lot of international tension.

(d) The Austrian Annexation of Bosnia (The Bosnian Crisis)-1908. This heightened tension in Europe. The Austrians took advantage of a Revolution in Turkey to annex the Turkish province of Bosnia. This was a deliberate move to block the neighboring state of Serbia which had been hoping to acquire Bosnia since it had 3 million Serbs among its population. The Serbs appealed to their Slavs in Russia.

(e) The Murder at Sarajevo-28th June, 1914 (Immediate Cause of the War).

The murder at Sarajevo was the assisination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand at Sarajevo on the 28th June, 1914. This was the event that sparked off the First World War. The Archduke was the heir to the Austrian Throne. Franz Ferdinand was paying an official visit to the newly acquired Austrian Territory of Bosnia. When he reached Sarajevo, the Capital of Bosnia, he and his wife were shot dead by a Serbian Nationalist by the name of Gavril Princip. He was a member of the Black Hand Organisation( one of the many secret societies which were in Serbia whose members were dedicated to overthrowing Austria from the Balkan Region). The Austrian government blamed the Serbian government for murder and sent a stiff ultimatum. The following were the conditions.

33

The Austrian police were to be allowed into Serbia to look for the murderer of the Archduke. The Serbian Government was supposed to disband all secret societies that were against Austria. All Serbian Government officials that were anti-Austrian were to be fired. Serbia refused to comply with these demands. As such, Austria declared War on Serbia on 28 th July, 1914. This marked the beginning of the First World War. GENERAL CAUSES OF THE 1ST WORLD WAR.  Nationalism- Nationalism simply means a feeling of belonging to a Nation whose people have the same language and culture. It led to the outbreak of the 1st World War by arousing the patriotic feelings of the people who for many years had been ruled by others. The spirit of Nationalism turned the heads of states with a feeling of National superiority. Many countries preached unity among country members. Soldiers in countries were made to fight wars with the conviction that they did so to serve their motherland. Nationalism was also very important in the Balkan region i.e. Serbia and the 3 million Serbs in Bosnia. This led to the immediate cause of the War-The Murder at Sarajevo.  Imperialism- imperialism was the extension of European influences in underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia for economic, social and political benefits. As a result of the industrial Revolution, European Countries needed raw materials and markets. Imperialism caused the 1st World War because during the process of acquiring colonies, European countries clashed over colonies e.g. Germany crushed with France

over

Morocco. Such tensions increased the chances of war in Europe.  Arms Race/Military Rivalries/Militarism- This simply meant preparing for war. Each European country increased its military hardware, as away of getting ready for war. Each country also increased the number of soldiers through conscription. Britain and Germany were also involved in a Naval Race.

Britain was

the first country to make the

Dreadnought. This was a powerful battleship with heavier guns and was the fastest in the World. Germany also started making an imitational Dreadnought called the U-boat. This meant that Britain’s naval supremacy was challenged by Germany. This increased the chances 34

for war. This increased the chances for war. By 1914, all the European Countries were completely armed and looking for an opportunity to start fighting.  System of Alliances- as if military strength was not enough, European Countries also started forming alliances to protect themselves against attacks. The system of alliances was started by Bismarck in 1872. The reaction of other powers to these alliances was that they became suspicious and they felt threatened. They also started forming their own alliances. By 1907, the world was divided into two military camps of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. The two camps were suspicious of each other. They threatened world peace as they were bound to clash one day. This created greater chances for war.  International Anarchy- This also caused the First World War because there was no international organisation to which countries would refer their disputes. As a result, some small countries were at the mercy of bigger countries.  Newspaper press/Propaganda- this was another cause of the war because of the role it played. The newspaper press poisoned the public minds through propaganda messages that were published in all countries. This contributed to world tension.  The Balkan Crises 1908-1914- The Balkan problems of the period 1908 to 1914 also contributed to the outbreak of the war. These were: The 1908 Austrian annexation of Bosnia, the First and the Second Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913, and the murder at Sarajevo of 1914. All these events created international tension that led to war.  The Murder at Sarajevo of 28th June, 1914- (refer to earlier notes)

THE RUSH FOR WAR. On the 28th of July, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia; the Russians did not want to let the Serbs down and ordered a general Mobilisation. The Germans ordered Russia to stop mobilisation and when the Russians refused to comply, Germany declared war on Russia on 1st August and France joined the War on the 3rd in support of Russia. When Germany troops entered Belgium which was a neutral country, Britain who had promised to protect Belgium demanded that Germany should withdraw. When Germany refused to comply, Britain declared War on Germany on the 4th of August.

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 When war broke out, Italy did not join the war immediately. Italy joined the war in 1915 and on the side of the Allied Powers instead of the Triple Alliance arccording to the alliances that were signed. This was because Italy signed the Secret Treaty of London in 1915 with Britain and France. By this treaty, Italy was promised the two territories of Triesse and Trentino after the defeat of Germany and Austria. These two territories belonged to Austria-Hungary. However, at the end of the war, Italy was not given the two territories at the Versailles Peace Treaty. COURSE OF THE 1ST WORLD WAR. The First World War was fought on several fronts. These were; 1. The Western Front and the Schlieffen Plan; Germany had been quick to declare war on Russia on the 3rd of August and on France on 4th August. To avoid fighting on two fronts at the same time, the Germans effected the Schlieffen plan. This was a plan that had been formulated by Count Alfred Von Schlieffen who was the German Chief of Staff in 1892. The plan was modified in 1911 and implemented by General Helmut Von Moltke in 1914. This plan aimed at a quick and easy victory over France on the Western Front and then quickly moves over to defeat Russia before she was fully prepared on the Eastern Front. According to the plan, German was to attack France via Belgium and defeat her within six weeks.

Reasons for the Schlieffen Plan.  Germany wanted to avoid fighting on two fronts, the Western Front with France and the Eastern Front with Russia.  Germany wanted to use Belgium to ensure a surprise attack on France since Belgium was a Neutral Country and the Franco-German border was well guarded.  Belgium was also a flat country and would ensure the easy and faster movement of troops and supplies unlike the mountainous and hilly Franco-German border.  Germany also assumed that Russia would be slow to mobilize and prepare for war. However, the Schlieffen Plan failed. This was because Russia on the Eastern Front mobilized faster than was anticipated by the Germans and launched an attack on the eastern part of 36

Germany. By this time, Belgium had already been over run by German troops and France was almost defeated. The Russian attack on the Eastern Front made Germany to divide its troops and supplies. This made Germany to relax her attack on thr Western front. This enabled Belgium and France to recover from the initial attack and organize themselves to put up strong resistance with the assistance of Britain. At the Battle of Maine in 1915, Germany was defeated and driven back. They had reached a stalemate and both sides dug trenches and started trench warfare which drugged the War.  Serbia also put up strong resistance against Austria-Hungary.

2. The Eastern Front On the Eastern, the war was between Germany and Russia. Russia had mobilized faster than the Germans had anticipated. This is what led to the failure of the Schlieffen Plan, because Germany was now forced to divide her troops and supplies. This reduced Germany’s effectiveness.

3. The War at Sea. At sea, the British maintained their supremacy at the beginning of the war. However, Germany also put up strong resistance. Throughout the war, the Germans controlled the Black Sea with their two battleships the CIEBIEN and BRESLEV. These caused serious damages to the British fleet. The first decisive British naval victory against the Germans was at the Battle of the Falklands in September, 1915 off the coast of Argentina in the pacific. The German fleet was completely destroyed. The Germans retaliated by developing SUBMARINES that put them at an advantage over the British. Britain started suffering heavy losses. To make matters worse for Britain, Germany declared the waters surrounding Britain as a war zone. Thus Britain was blockaded from the rest of Europe and could not receive any war supplies especially from the USA . Germany also declared unlimited Submarine Warfare and warned that any ship approaching Britain would be sunk. Several ships belonging to the USA were sunk as a result of this declaration. This violation of American Neutrality is what forced the USA to enter the 1st World War.

37

ENTRY OF THE USA INTO THE FIRST WORLD WAR. When the 1st World War broke out, the then USA president Woodrow Wilson urged the American people to be neutral in thought and actions. This was because the USA had not involved herself in the entangling System of Alliances in Europe. The USA was also in the middle of Social and economic reforms and preferred to trade with the countries at war i.e. Britain and France. In addition, the 92 million American population comprised of 3rd/4th generation European immigrants from countries at war. To avoid a civil war, the USA preferred to be neutral in the beginning. However, on the 6th of April, the USA joined the 1st World War on the side of the allied powers.

Reasons for the US Entry into the War. 

Economic Reasons- the American industrialists had lent vast sums of money to the nations at war in order to supplement their war efforts. The USA feared that her loans may not be paid back if Germany won the war. In order to protect her economic investments, the USA joined the on the side of the allied powers.



Political reasons- the USA assumed the role of being the protector of world democracy. The USA president Wilson stated that America should join the war to safeguard the world democracy. It was feared that if Germany won the War, it would rule the whole world and introduce dictatorship.



Military Reasons- These were the main reasons for the US entry into WW1.  The Zimmerman Telegram: German foreign minister Zimmerman sent a telegram message to the German ambassador in Mexico that he should persuade the Mexican government to claim for the lost states of Arizona and Taxes from the USA. He was to assure the Mexican Governent that if Mexico went to war with 38

the USA, Germany would offer military assistance to Mexico. The aim of sending this telegram was to ensure that America was occupied elsewhere instead of interfering in the European War. Unfortunately, this telegram was intercepted by the British intelligence who sent the telegram to the American government. The US viewed this telegram as a threat to her security. She thought it was not good to wait any longer when the enemy was on her doostep. Hence America joined the war.  The German declaration of Unlimited

Submarine Warfare: this was the

immediate reason that compelled the U.S.A to enter the war in 1917. The declaration posed a big threat to America’s security especially on the sea. Germany’s submarines had increased rapidly and on 4th February, 1914, Kaiser William II announced that any ships approaching Britain would be sunk without warning. Woodrow Wilson responded by warning Germany that America would attack Germany if any harm was done to the People and Property of America. Germany went ahead and sunk passenger and trade ships from America e.g. the “Lusitania” was sunk in 1915 and the “Sussex” in 1916. Hence America joined the War on the side of the Allied Powers on 6th April 1917.

THE DEFEAT OF GERMANY AND HER ALLIES. By the time the USA entered the War, Britain and France were exhausted and were almost giving up. The USA entered the War with about 2 million Fresh soldiers , new and advanced weapons, financial support and provided world Leadership. Therefore, Germany and her allies didn’t stand a chance of winning the War. The allied forces made an offensive attack on Germany on 8th August, 1918. 500 American tanks penetrated the Germany lines and defeated the Germans. The Last major battle against the Germans was fought on 26th September 1918. In 1918, Greece joined the allied forces. The allied forces defeated Bulgaria on 29th September, 1918 and also helped Serbia and Romania to recover. On the 3rd of October, Turkey was defeated. Austria-Hungary withdrew from the war on

39

3rd November. The Austria-Hungarian Empire was crumbling i.e. Hungary declared her independence from Austria. Germany whose allies had pulled out of the War or had been defeated could not continue fighting against the determined and richer allied forces. On 9th November, 1918, Kaiser William II abdicated and was arrested by the Germans. His successor Ebert immediately signed armistice/peace agreement with the allied powers on 11th November 1918. This date marked the end of the 1st World War. REASONS FOR GERMANY’S QUICK VICTORIES IN THE EARLY STAGES OF THE WAR. 

The geographical position of Germany put her at an advantage as she was centrally located. This made her to easily and quickly transport troops and supplies to the east and west as compared to her opponents, the allied powers.



Germany had the best trained army in Europe. Her troops used advanced weapons such as artillery launchers and machine guns. Germany also used effective military tactics that her enemies found difficult to counteract in the early stages of the War.



When Germany declared war, she was self-sufficient economically. The developed economy enabled her to support her soldiers in the war. Germany industries produced enough war materials to supply the forces.



The communication system in terms of roads, railway lines had been fully developed and efficient to meet the demands of war. Troops and other supplies were transported to the fronts at a much faster rate than it was the case for the allied powers.



The Armies of the Central powers fell under one command, the German Command. This was an advantage over the allies who entered the as individual countries.



Germany also had experienced and competent army officers who fought during the wars of unification e.g. General Helmut Von Moltke.



Germany was also well prepared for the War e.g. The Schlieffen Plan.

REASONS FOR GERMANY’S FINAL DEFEAT. 

Germany’s quick victories at the beginning of the war was a disadvantage to her. She had to control vast areas that she had conquered. But the germany army was not big 40

enough to effectively control these areas. In an effort to control the conquered areas, the German armies were thinly spread in many parts of the world. This affected the German army’s effectiveness in Europe. 

Germany had weak allies such as Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Romania. As a result, Central powers troops were outnumbered and overpowered.



The failure of the Schlieffen plan also contributed to the final defeat of germany and her allies. This forced the Germany to fight on two fronts. This weakened the Germany army.



Britain’s Royal air force engaged in air raids over Germany cities leading to the destruction of infrastructure such as industries, roads, bridges and railway lines. As a result, Germany could no longer produce goods to meet the needs of the troops. Shortages of war materials led to indiscipline and mutiny among the soldiers.



The loss of morale among the German public also contributed to the final defeat of Germany. The German population was no longer in support of the war. The War brought misery and the population experienced starvation, diseases, destruction of cities, loss of lives and the crime rate was high. This put Germany in a difficult situation to continue the war.



The control of the seas by the British Navy staged a blockade of the Germany ports and supply lines. This meant that Germany was out of international trade.

This trade

blockade meant that Germany and her allies were slowly experiencing starvation in food and war materials. 

The entry of the USA into the 1st World War was the final reason for the defeat of Germany and her allies. The USA entered the war with 2million fresh soldiers, new ad advanced weapons and financial assistance. As a result, Germany who was already exhausted was finally defeated.

QUESTIONS 1. Explain how the Murder of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand led to the outbreak of the First World War. Why was Germany defeated in the War? {14,6}.

2. Explain how the Events in the Balkans in the years 1908 to 1914 led to; 41

(a) War among the Balkan States. (b) The outbreak of the First World War {10,10}

3. Discuss the main events that led to the outbreak of the First World War between 1908 to 1914. {20}.

4. Show how the following factors contributed to the outbreak of the First World War; (a) Imperialism (b) Arms Race (c) Alliance System (d) Murder at Sarajevo

5. Discuss the reasons for the US entry into the First World War. Give Reasons for Germany’s quick victories in the early stages of the War. {12,8}

6. Discuss the causes of the First World War of 1914 to 1918. {20}

7. Write brief notes on any FOUR of the following; (a) The Schlieffen Plan (b) The Agadier Incident of 1911 (c) The Austrian annexation of Bosnia (d) Murder at Sarajevo (e) The 1st and 2nd Balkan wars of 1912 to 1913. (f) Imperialism

THE VERSAILLES PEACE TREATY/SETTLEMENT-1918. The Versailles Peace Settlement as a conference that was held by the Allied Nations to discuss the future of the world after the 1st World War. The Peace settlement was held in France, Paris at the Versailles Palace in the Hall of Mirrors. The defeated powers i.e. Germany and her allies 42

were not invited. Germany was only called to sign what had been agreed upon. At this conference, the Allied Nations were pre-occupied with two important problems. These were; 

How to punish Germany and her allies for the damages caused during the War



To create an international organisation that would ensure world peace and security and prevent the reoccurrence of another war.

Therefore, the “Big Four” i.e. Woodrow Wilson of the USA, David Lloyd George of Britain, George Clemenceau of France and Vittorio Orlando of Italy met in France.

VIEWS OF THE “BIG FOUR”.  George Clemenceau- the French Prime minister wanted revenge on germany. The French wanted to get back the lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The French also wanted Germany to be severely punished and never to rise again as a world power.  David Lloyd George-he was the British prime Minster. He personally wanted a fair and just settlement for that would satisfy as many people as possible. But following the British public outcry, he also advocated for the punishment of Germany but not as severely as the French wanted. He wanted Germany to be spared economically.  Vittorio Orlando-he was the Italian Foreign affairs Minister. He wanted a settlement that favored the punishment of Germany and her allies. He also requested for the territories that Italy was promised in the Secrete Treaty of London of 1915. This demand was not granted. As such, Orlando walked out of the Conference and did not contribute much to the final result. It is for this reason that the Leaders at the Conference are sometimes referred to as the “Big Three”.  Woodrow Wilson- he was the US president and chairman of the conference. Before becoming the President, Wilson was not a politician. He had been a lawyer and historian and had spent most of his time in Universities. As an idealist democrat, Wilson wanted a fair and just settlement for all. His views were based on his famous 14 points. These 14 points provided the Agenda for the discussions at the peace settlement.

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WOODROW WILSON’S 14 POINTS. All negotiations between states were to be done in the open i.e. the end of secret alliances. There was to be freedom in the usage of seas both in peace and war times except for territorial waters. There should be international free trade i.e. no tariff barriers between countries. There was to be general disarmament i.e. all nations to disarm to the lowest possible point that was consistent with national security. The wishes of people in the colonies were to be taken into account when settling colonial boundaries. There was to be the evacuation of Germany troops from all Russian territories. Belgium was to be completely liberated and to become independent. Alsace and Lorraine were to be given back to France. Italy’s frontiers were to be adjusted so as to avoid quarrels with Austria Hungary. There was to be self-governments for the people of Austria and Hungary which were to be separate independent states. Serbia was to be given access to sea. Turkey was to be made independent. Poland was also to be established as a independent state. There was to be the Creation of an International Organisation to ensure world peace and security and prevent an outbreak of another War.

TERMS/PROVISIONS/RESULTS OF THE VERSAILLES TREATY. These were based on the economic, military and territorial terms; 1. Political Terms- Germany was charged with the “War Guilty” Clause article 231 of the Versailles Treaty. The Allied Powers forced Germany to accept responsibility for starting the War. This was because Germany violated Germany Neutrality when the war started.

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In addition, Germany is said to have encouraged her ally Austria to attack Serbia. Other Political terms were; 

Germany was forbidden from Uniting with Austria.



Germany was not around to be a member of the League of Nations at the Beginning.



A democratic Government was imposed on Germany.

2. Economic Terms- as a result of the acceptance of the War Guilty Clause, Germany was forced to make reparations for all the damages done during the 1st World War. The Terms were that; 

Germany was supposed to pay £6,600 million in cash.



A fixed number of cattle were to paid to Belgium as compensation for violating her neutrality.



The German merchant Navy was to be handed over to Britain.



A fixed number of coal from the Saar Region of Germany was to be handed over to France.



Trade restrictions were imposed on Germany

3. Military Terms- Germany was completely disarmed as follows; 

The Germany army was to be reduced from about 900,000 men to only 100,000 men.



Germany was forbidden from compulsory military service (conscription)



All war time Guns and other weapons were to be melted into scrape metal.



The Germany navy was to be cut down to only 5 light battleships and Germany was not allowed to have Submarines in future.



Germany was not allowed to have an air force.



Germany was also forbidden from making alliances with Austria.

4. Territorial Terms- Territorial terms led to German loosing territories both in Europe and outside Europe. German territorial loses in Europe. 45

 Alsace and Lorraine were given back to France. The were grabbed from France after the Franco-Prussian War which completed the unification of Germany.  The Saar Coal fields which were part of Germany were to be Governed by the League of Nations for 15years. During this time, France was to mine the coal fields as compensation for the destruction caused by the retreating Germany soldiers during the war. After 15 years, the inhabitants of the region were to vote whether to remain part of France or go back to Germany.  In the North East of Germany, more territorial loses occurred as a result of the creation of Poland as an independent state. Poland had been under Russia for a Century. Poland had a special corridor (the Polish Corridor) through Germany territory which got it an outlet to sea. The reappearance of Poland led to Germany losing over 3million citizens of whom about 1/3 or more were German. The Polish Corridor separated East Prussia from Germany.  Other loses were as a result of the Creation of Czechoslovakia as an independent nation which was formerly under part of Austria.  Port Danzig, an important Germany was declared an international Free City to be administered by the League of Nations. The Poles were to use the Port facilities.  Port Memel was to be given to Lithuania.  North Schleswig and Holstein which were seized after the Prussian-Danish war of 1864 were to be given back to Denmark.  The Rhineland (most industrialized part of Germany) remained under Germany but was to be permanently demilitarized and was to be occupied by the allied forced until 1935.  Eupen and Malmedy were to be given to Belgium.

Germany Territorial loses outside Europe.  The League of Nations gave Germany’s territories in Africa to the Allied Nations to administer as Mandated Territories e.g. Germany East Africa (Tanzania) went to Britain.  German South West Africa (Namibia) was given to South Africa.  Togo and Cameroon were shared between Britain and France. 46

Territorial loses in the Far East were;  German territories in the Far East were shared among Japan, Austria and New Zealand. German Samoa Islands went to New Zealand.  Palestine, Jordan and Iraq were given to Britain, Syria and Lebanon. GERMANY’S REACTION TO VERSAILLES TREATY. The German people were angered by the Versailles Peace Settlement They considered it to have been unfair and unjust. 

They refused to accept the War Guilty clause arguing that Russia had mobilized first and should be responsible for the war.



The Treaty was also considered to have been a Diktat (a dictated peace treaty). The Germans had not been invited to the conference; they were just called to sign the Treaty. The German army officers refused to sign the treaty. A civilian politician Erzberger who signed was later shot dead.



Germany also complained that the Economic terms were too harsh and impossible to fulfill.



The Germans also hated the Democratic government that was imposed on Germany. They were used to being ruled by strong Monarchs.



The Germans also found the military and territorial terms extremely humiliating.

Therefore, the Germans started looking for an opportunity when they would get rid of the Humiliating Versailles Treaty. This opportunity came with the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party.

OTHER TREATIES THAT WERE SIGNED. 1. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk-1917. This was a Treaty that was signed between Germany and Russia to end the war on the Eastern Front. In 1917, there was the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia that led to the end of the Monarch and the ushering in of a Communist regime under Lenin. The New government decided to withdraw from the 1st world War on the side of the Allied powers. This was because the War had brought a lot of misery and suffering to the Russian people especially the peasants. The German and Russian representatives met in a Polish Town of Brest- Litovsk. The terms were; 47

 Russia lost most territories acquired since the 17th Century e.g. Lithuania, Estonia and the Eastern Part of Prussia.  She also lost her rich provinces of the Ukraine.

These terms were too harsh and humiliating for Russia. This also put the allied forces at a disadvantage because it strengthened the Germany Army on the Western Front.

2. The Treaty of St. Germain-1919. This Treaty was signed between Austria and the Allies. The terms were; Austria recognized the complete independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugoslavia. Austria was also deprived of her sea ports. Her army was reduced to 30,000 men. The reparation commission was to fix her war indemnity Austria was also forbidden from Uniting with Germany As a result of this Treaty, Austria was reduced to a small republic.

3. The Treaty of Nuilley-1919. This Treaty was signed on the 27th November between Bulgaria and the Allied powers. The terms were; 

The western part of Bulgaria was given to Yugoslavia.



Western Thrace and the Aegean coasts were given to Greece.



The Bulgarian Army was reduced to 33,000 men.



The Navy was practically abolished.



Bulgaria was to pay reparations of $9 million.

By this treaty, Bulgaria became the Weakest of the Balkan States.

4. The Treaty of Trianon-1920. The Treaty was signed on 20th June, 1920. This was between Hungary and the allies. The terms were; 48



The Hungarian army was reduced to 35, 000 men.



Hungary was to pay a fixed amount of reparations to the allies.



Fuime was to be given to Italy.



Croatia was given to Yugoslavia.



Transylvania was given to Romania.

By this treaty, Hungary lost 1/3 of her territory and 40% of her territory.

5. The Treaty of Sevres-1920. This Treaty was signed between Turkey and the Allies. The terms were; 

Armenia was created as an independent Christian republic.



The Arab State of Hedjaz was put under British control



Mesopotamia, Trans-Jordan, Syria and Palestine were taken away from Turkey. France controlled Syria.



Greece was given the Dodecanese Islands.



Turkey was required to pay a huge war indemnity.



The Turkish army was reduced to 50, 000.



The Navy and the Air forces were also disbanded.

49

QUESTIONS. 1. What conditions were imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Why did the Germans condemn this treaty? {14,6}. 2. What were the Views of the “Big Three” about the Peace Settlement with Germany and her allies after the First World War? Outline the main territorial terms of the Settlement. {6,14}

3. Why were Germany and her allies defeated in the First World War? What territories did Germany lose outside Europe as a result of the Treaty of Versailles? {10,10}

4. What were the Major provisions of three of the following Treaties signed after the First World War? (a) The Treaty of St.Germain (b) The Treaty of Trianon. (c) The Treaty of Sevres (d) The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk {7, 7, 7}. 5. Outline Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points. What were the Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles? {7, 13}.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS 1919-1939. The idea to form the League of Nations was by Woodrow Wilson, the American President. This was the 14th point of his famous 14 points that were a basis of the discussions at the Versailles Peace Settlement of 1918. The League of Nations was formed in 1920 with its headquarters IN Geneva, Switzerland. The Covenant of the League was the Written constitution to which all member countries had to adhere.

AIMS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS. 50

The aims of the League of Nations (as enshrined in the Covenant) were as follows;  Preservation of world peace and security i.e. National disputes were to be settled peacefully. This was the most important aim of the League of Nations.  To guarantee political independence and territorial integrity to great and small nations  To ensure a general disarmament to the lowest level for national security.  To establish an international force (army) under the supervision of the League, to help in implementing and enforcing the decisions of the League of Nations.  To respect treaties and publish them.  To encourage friendships among members countries.  To encourage international co-operation among member countries in solving social, political and economic problems.  To impose economic and political sanctions against any member country committing acts of aggression.  To set up a mandate system for the control of defeated countries’ former territories.

THE STRUCTURE/ORGANISATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The structure of the League of Nations comprised of 5 main organs plus a number of commissions.

ORGANS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS 1) The League Assembly; this was like a world parliament where each member country had a right to send 3-5 representatives. When it came to voting, each member country had only one vote regardless of the status and size of a country. The members met once every year in September. Decisions were made on a 2/3 majority. The functions of the League Assembly were;  To make laws to govern the League i.e. it was a legislative body.  It approved the budget of the League of Nations  It debated on issues concerning member states  It also appointed the non-permanent members of the League Council.  It was responsible for the appointment of the Secretary General on recommendation from the League Council. 51

2) The League Council; this was the League Executive body which was made up of 9 members. The 5 permanent members were Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the USA whose seat remained Vacant. The League assembly also elected 4 non-permanent members on a 3year rotational term. Members met at least 3 to 4 times a year though they could be summoned any time if there was any emergency that threatened world peace. Decisions in the Council were made unanimously. The 5 permanent members had the right to Veto, meaning they could refuse any decision made by the Council. The Functions were; 

To carry out general Disarmament



It was also responsible for the maintenance of world peace and security.



It recommended the appointment of the Secretary General and the admission of new members.



It was responsible for imposing sanctions (economic/military) on disobedient member countries.

3) The League Secretariat; this was an international Civil service. It was made up of the Secretary General and about 500 members from member countries.Its head quarters were based in Geneva, Swaziland. The first secretary general was an Englishman, Sir Eric Edmund. This was the administrative wing of the League. Its functions were; 

It implemented the League’s decisions.



It carried out research and provided factual information on issues needed by the League Assembly and organs.



It also kept records for the League.



It translated documents in all the Major world languages.



It sent reminders for meetings to all member countries



It supervised the work of the Commissions of the League.

4) The Permanent International Court of Justice; this acted like an international judiciary. The headquarters of the Court were based in the Netherlands (Holland) at The Hague. It was established in 1922. It consisted of 15 judges who were drawn from 52

member countries and elected by the League Assembly on recommendation from the League Council. The functions of the court were; To settle disputes among member countries. However, it had limited powers since it could not enforce its decisions. It also gave legal advise to other organs. It interpreted international documents. By 1939, the court had settled 70 major cases and had helped to arrange 400 international agreements.

5) The International Labour Organisation; this was made up of representatives from governments of member countries; employers. Employees and trade unions. Its headquarters were based in Geneva Switzerland. The function were;  To work for the improvement of workers’ conditions of services through an 8 hour working day and a working week of 48 hours.  Workers to have annual paid holidays.  Encourage workers to have trade Unions  Also published international agreements which member countries were to rectify.

COMMISSIONS OF THE LEAGUE. The League Commissions complemented the work of the 5 main organs in achieving the aims of the League of Nations. These were;  The Permanent Mandate Commission; this ensured the good governance of the mandate territories i.e. the former colonies of the defeated powers in the First World War. These were controlled by countries such as Britain and France.  The World Health Organisation; this commission was there to ensure that people in member countries enjoyed good health. It carried out research to find vaccines and cure for contagious diseases such as smallpox and measles.  The Food and Agriculture organisation; This commission ensured that there was food security in the world. It carried out research on how to improve production and made the information available to member countries. it also gave loans for the improvement of

53

food production to member countries. In times of draught and famine, it provided food relief to the affected countries.  The Drug Commission; this commission drew attention to the dangers of certain drugs and introduced measures of controlling drug trafficking.  The Minorities Commission; This commission drew attention to the ill-treatment of minority groups in major countries and devised ways of protecting them.  The Disarmament Commission; this commission dealt with the reduction of arms in all member countries to the lowest level. However, this commission had the least success.  The Economic and Social Commission; this dealt with social and economic problems in Member countries. It carried out research on these problems in member countries and made recommendations on how to solve these problems.  Refugee Commission; This commission dealt with the repatriation and resettlement of refugees from the 1st World War since many people had lost their homes during the 1st World War.

ATTITUDES OF SOME MEMBER COUNTRIES. 

Russia; She was not invited to join the League of Nations because the Western powers feared the new communist regime in Russia. According to them, Russia encouraged bloody revolutions and communism. However, Russia only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 when she invaded Finland.



USA; Although Woodrow Wilson was the founder of the League of Nations, the US senate refused to rectify the League Covenant and never became a member of the League.



France; She saw the League of Nations as an agency of enforcing the terms of the Versailles Treaty. She wanted the League to guard her security against the dangers of the emerging Germany power after Hitler came to power.



Britain; She expected the League to solve world problems peacefully. Britain was not willing to send its forces to act on behalf of the League. People’s memories in Britain were still fresh with memories of the slaughter of the 1st World War. Such that they were not willing to engage in another way. 54



Germany; she had joined the League of Nations in 1926. Germany ruled by Hitler from 1933 withdrew from the League of Nations when the disarmament conference proved to be a failure in 1934. Hitler then embarked on Acts of Aggression in Europe and disregarded all the terms of the Versailles treaty and undermined the League of Nations.

SUCCESSES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The League was successful in settling disputes among member countries e.g. it settled a dispute between Turkey and Iraq over Monsul which was given to Iraq but Turkey was to benefit from the oil revenues. The League also intervened in the murder of 5 Italians engaged in the settling of a frontier disputes between Albania and Greece in 1923. This led to the Italian seizure of the Greek Islands of Corfu. However, the League secured the withdrawal of Italian troops and the payment of compensation by Greece. The League also stopped the Yugoslavian invasion of Albania in 1921. The League also organized economic aid for Austria and Hungary whose economies were on the Verge of collapsing. The League of Nations also scored successes on the rehabilitation of refugees e.g. about £10 million was given to Greece to assist in the settlement of refugees. The League succeeded in combating post war epidemics such as typhoid in Poland and Russia where there was an outbreak. The League also made a strong effort in suppressing drug trafficking. It was also partly successful in protecting the rights of minority groups in various countries. It scored a lot of successes in Labour welfare through the work of the ILO. There was also an increase in the membership from 42 in 1920 to 60 by 1936. During its most successful period, 1920-1929, several Treaties and pacts were signed e.g. 1925 the Locarno Pact and the 1928 Kellogg Pact. It also acted as a base from which the United Nations Organisation was formed.

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FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS. 1. The major failure of the League of Nations was that it was unable to prevent the outbreak of the 2nd World War in 1939. This failure was due to the fact that the League of Nations could not stop the Aggressive acts of some of its major member e.g. Countries the Japanese invasion of Manchuria of 1931. After comdemnation from the League of Nations, Japan withdrew from the League membership. Another example was the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1933 and many acts of aggression committed by Germany under Hitler. When condemned, these countries withdrew from the League to committee more acts of aggression. 2. The League’s failures were also as a result of the absence of an international army or force to reinforce the League’s decisions. As such, the League was perceived to have been a “toothless” organisation as it had no mechanism to reinforce its decisions. This weakness made the aggressive countries to take advantage of and carry out more acts of aggression. 3. The League of Nations also failed to carry out complete disarmament. It only emphasized on the disarmament of the defeated powers especially Germany, while the other powers kept their arms. As such, when Hitler came to power, he started rapid re-armament and the other powers responded by starting to rearm. This started the Arms race again 4. The absence of major world countries from the beginning also contributed to the failure of the League. Though the League of Nations was founded by Wilson, the US president, the US senate refused membership. Other countries especially the defeated countries such as Germany and Russia were not members of the League. As such, the League of Nations was seen as a “victors club”. This weakened the foundation of the League of Nations. 5. The Principle of Nationalism was much stronger than that of internationalism. Nations were not ready to put the interests of the League of Nations before their own National interests. This meant that the League of Nations received minimal co-operation from member countries. 6. The League of Nations was also perceived to have been a European organisation by countries of other continents. This lack of international standing contributed to the failure of the League of Nations.

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7. The rise of dictatorships in some European countries also contributed to the failure of the League of Nations. The dictators in Italy, Germany and Spain started carrying out aggressive acts that the League could not control. 8. The Smaller members lost confidence in the League’s ability to protect them against aggressors as they felt vulnerable and withdrew their support from the League. 9. The League also failed to be financially independent from its major member countries. This influenced the decision making of the League of Nations.

QUESTIONS. 1. What were the successes of the League of Nations during the inter-war period in working for World Peace? Why did the League fail to preserve world peace by 1939? {8, 12}. 2. Show how the events between 1920 and 1939 showed that the League of Nations was a toothless organisation. What other factors led to the eventual collapse of the League of Nations. {6, 14}. 3. Discuss the aims and structure of the League of Nations. {20} 4. Discuss the League of Nations under the following headings; (a) Aims (b) Composition and Functions of three of its organs. (c) The Work of Three of its commissions

THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 1919-1933. The Weimar Republic was a democratic government that came to power in Germany after the 1 st World War. Due to the chaos brought about by the war, there was general discontent in Germany. This led to the Germany revolution of 1918. The aim of this revolution was to overthrow the Government of Kaiser William II. When this happened, Kaiser William II abdicated on 19th November, 1918. This marked the end of the Monarch in Germany. Many political parties emerged and elections were held in January, 1919. The majority Socialist Party went to a small German Town of Weimar (to avoid the noise and chaos of Berlin) to draw 57

up a new constitution. It was here that the new democratic government, the Weimar Republic was created. Fredrick Herbert became the President and Philip Scheidenman became the Chancellor. By August 1919, the new democratic constitution was approved. The new constitution was an extremely democratic one.

TERMS OF THE WEIMAR CONSTITUTION. The Weimar Constitution was adopted on 31st July and became effective on 11th August, 1919. The terms were;  The Head of the State, the president was to be elected by Universal suffrage, i.e. all the German people male and female. The president could be elected for a 7 year term but could be re-elected for a second term. The President was also the Commander-in-chief of the armed forces and could rule by degree if the need arose. The president could also be forced to resign before the end of his term of office by a referendum.  The President was also responsible for the appointment of the Chancellor and ministers who formed a government that was answerable to the Reichstag (parliament).  The Germany Republic was now made up of the Lander or regions which formed local governments on proportional representation and were required to adopt democratic forms of Governance.  The central Government was to have full control of taxation and was responsible for education, health and defense.  Its bill of rights also guaranteed freedom of speech, legal equality and religious freedom and a right to minimum provision of Social services.  There was also a provision for a referendum on any issues which allowed which allowed the people to take a direct role in policy making.

PROBLEMS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC. There were many problems in Germany at the time. The New government had the task of bringing law and order in the country. However, the Weimar Republic came to an end in 1933 with the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party to power. The new Governent was unpopular with the German people and it was not strong enough to cope with serious economic and political

58

problems. As a result, people lost confidence in the new Government. The Weimar Republic had a lot of weaknesses and problems that led to its down fall in 1933. These were; 

The Weimar Republic had a weak foundation. This was associated with with the place where the government was formed, Weimar. The status of the Government was affected by the inferior town of Weimar where it was created. As such, many Germans perceived the Weimar Republic as being inferior.



The Germany people and the army also believed in the theory of the “Dochtoss” which meant “stab in the back”. This was a belief that the cause of the loss of the war was not the failure of the army or the Germany revolution but the political betrayal by the leaders of the Weimar Republic. This was because it was a politician, Erzeberger who signed the Versailles Peace Settlement with the war guilty clause and the humiliating terms. The Germany public believed that Germany wouldhave won the war if the government had not signed the treaty. So the Weimar Republic was seen as a government of traitors. As such, the government lacked support from the public.



The Weimar Republic also lacked outstanding leadership. The leaders of the Weimar Republic were theorists who could not inspire or organize the people. This made the government very weak.



The Weimar Republic was unable to deal with opposition parties effectively. Among this opposition were; i.

The Spartacist Revolution; this was a Marxist Revolutionary body led by Rosa Luxembourg with the support of General Von Luttiwitz. Rosa Luxembourg was murdered by some army officer with the collaboration of the Weimar Republic. This angered the Germany people.

ii.

The Kapp Putsch of March, 1920; This was an attempt by Dr. Kapp and General Von Luttiwitz to overthrow the Weimar Republic. The Situation was so bad that the president and his had to leave Berlin. For only 4 hours only, Dr. Kapp became the Chancellor. However, this rebellion failed.

iii.

The Beer Hall/Munich Putsch of 1924; this was started by Hitler and his NAZI Party. This one also failed and Hitler was imprisoned for 3 months.

Besides these revolts, the government could not deal with a group of assassins who were targeting some of the Government leaders especially those who were responsible for the 59

signing of the Versailles Treaty. The Chancellor Scheidenman was almost assassinated in 1921. Erzeberger, the Chairman of the committee that signed the treaty was shot dead in 1922. Another government official, Walter Rutherman the Foreign affairs Minster was murdered. These acts of terriorism and the inability of the Government to deal with the culprits effectively weakened the Weimar republic. 

The Economic problems were the worst of the Republic’s problems and the inability to deal with them further weakened the Republic. To begin with, the Republic inherited economic problems such as inflation, unemployment and food shortages. To this was added the burdens of the reparations to the allied powers. This was worsened by the loss of the Saar region, Alsace and Lorraine to France. However, between 1923 and 1929, Germany’s economy improved because of the efforts of Gustav Stressman. In 1923, Stressman became the Chancellor and Foreign Minster.



The government was also faced with the Problem of incompetent and a corrupt civil service that could not implement its policies effectively.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF GUSTAV STRESSMAN. (Successes of the Weimar Republic)  Stressman’s immediate concern was to end the French occupation of the Ruhr region which was an income generator for Germany. The French had occupied the Ruhr region after Germany had failed to pay reparations. He achieved this through a policy of reconciliation with France. This led to the signing of the Locarno Pact of 1925 which ended the French occupation of the Ruhr region.  Stressman’s other achievement was that he was able to stabilize the fluctuating mark by the issuance of a new currency called the Rentenmark which ended inflation.  Stressman also embarked on rapid industrial development and the rebuilding of economy by asking for Loans from the USA. Stressman first set up a Reparation Commission to study the economic conditions in Germany and estimate her ability to pay war reparations. The committee drew up the so called Dawes Plan. This was set up to ensure the effective payment of reparations. The Dawes Plan was followed by the Young Plan. The aim of this plan was the same as that of the Dawes Plan. Among the most important recommendations of the Young Plan was that 60

Germany would have to pay her war debts in installments of £100 million over a period of 37 years. By 1929, the economic situation in Germany had improved greatly. Employment levels increased and the standards of living for most Germans had improved. Opposition to the Weimar Republic also lessened.

THE COLLAPSE OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC. The death of Gustav Stressman in 1929 coincided with the Great Economic Depression. This spelt disaster for the German economy. The Economic depression started in the USA as a result of the collapse of the Stock exchange Market. By 1931, the effects of the Depression were been felt in Europe. Germany especially was negatively affected because she depended on the US loans for economic development. The loans from the US were discontinued. This led to the collapse of Germany industries. Many industries closed down. The rate of unemployment increased rapidly. Germany faced food shortages which resulted into food riots. The Weimar Republic could not deal with these economic problems and the German public became discontent with the Government. It was during this chaotic situation that Hitler and his NAZI Party rose to power. Hitler took advantage of the situation to campaign against the government. He promised the German people that if he came to power, he would improve the situation in Germany. Hitler came to power in January, 1933. Therefore, the Great Depression and its effects is what led to the final collapse of the Weimar Republic.

QUESTIONS. 1. Explain the problems and weaknesses of the Weimar Republic in Germany. How did Hitler take advantage of these to rise to power? {14, 6}.

2. Discuss the successes of the Weimar Republic between 1923 and 1929. What led to its final collapse? {14, 6}.

GERMANY AND THE RISE OF HITLER AND THE NAZI PARTY 1933-1945. 61

HITLER’S BACKGROUND. Adolf Hitler was born in 1889. He was born an Austrian of middle class parents. He was not very educated and worked for a while as a sign painter and then joined the Germany army in 1914. Hitler rose to the rank of Corporal and was awarded an Iron Cross for his bravery and distinguished service during the 1st World War. However, after the war, Hitler was disillusioned by the defeat of Germany. He also strongly opposed the Treaty of Versailles and its humiliating terms for Germany. He also opposed the establishment of the Weimar Republic. As such, Hitler set himself two aims in his political career. The first was to free Germany from the Versailles Treaty and the second was to resurrect Germany through building a Greater Germany with a stronger army through territorial expansion. Hitler was also convinced that neither democracy nor communism could help Germany. According to him, Germany needed stronger leadership. In his views, Hitler was influenced by two political philosophers Nietzsche and aldof stocker. Nietzsche’s theory of “Superman” gave Hitler the idea that the Germans belonged to a pure Aryan race that was destined to rule other inferior races. Adolf Stocker’s anti-Semitic (against Jews) writing made the made the Jews Hitler’s number one enemy. Throughout Hitler’s political career, Hitler maintained that Germany was no defeated in the 1st World War but that she had been betrayed by her enemy the Jews and the Communists. MAIN STAGES OF HITLER’S RISE TO POWER. 

Hitler’s political career started in 1919 when he joined the Germany Socialist Workers’ Party. In February 1920, Hitler became the president of the Party. He renamed the party as the National Socialist Germany’s Party (NAZI). This party rose to power rapidly and within a decade, it became the most important and feared party in Germany. The Party used the Swastika as its symbol. The party was feared because of the use of violence which was carried out by the Storm Troopers, the NAZI army.



In March 1923, with the help of the Storm troopers, Hitler organized the “March on Berlin”. However, this revolt which was aimed at overthrowing the government failed and Hitler became frustrated. He intensified his use of violence.

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

On the 6th November, the Nazis tried to overthrow the government again. This revolt started in a beer Hall in Munich and it was referred to as the Beer Hall Putsch or Munich Putsch. This revolt failed as well and Hitler was imprisoned for 5 years but only served for 9 months. During his imprisonment, Hitler wrote a Book entitled “Mein Kampf” (My Struggle). This book was published in 1924 and it contained Hitler’s ideas and programs for Germany and the world at large. This book became the NAZI bible.



Germany’s economic prosperity after 1923 caused a decline in the support for the NAZI Party. In 1928, the NAZI party secured 12 seats in the Lower House. In 1929, Stressman who had been responsible for Germany’s economic development died and there was an economic depression. This Depression and the failure of the Weimar Republic to contain its effects caused a lot of dissatisfaction among the Germany people. This provided an opportunity for Hitler and the NAZI Party to win support. Between 1929 and 1932, Successive Chancellors Von Papen and Von Schleitcher failed to improve the Germany’s economic situation. In the 1932 elections, the NAZI Party became the largest single party in Parliament with 236 seats. Following the 1932 elections, the new German President Von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as the Chancellor of Germany.

REASONS FOR HITLER’S RISE TO POWER. 

Hitler’s personality contributed to his rise to power. He had a very strong personality and was a resourceful leader. Above all, he used his gift as an Orator to win support from the Germany people.



Division between the Communists and the Social democratic Parties weakened resistance against the strong NAZI Party. Hitler and the NAZI Party too advantage of the absence of a strong of a strong opposition to assume power in Germany.



The Weakness of democracy also contributed to Hitler’s rise to power. Democracy had no deep roots in Germany. The German people were used to being ruled by strong monarchs. Democracy in Germany led to the establishment of many political parties, which during the period of the Great Economic Depression became involved in political rivalries instead of finding solutions. In addition, the Germany people hated Democracy. Therefore, Hitler promised the Germans that he would create a stronger government that would solve their problems. 63



The Nationalist aspect of Nazism also contributed to Hitler’s rise to power. The NAZI Party promised to restore Germany to its former glory through rearmament and territorial expansion. Therefore, the NAZI Party was supported by the middle class people and the ex-service men who wanted the return of the German Empire. The NAZI also promised to fight communism which was responsible for the defeat of Germany in the 1 st World War.



The Socialist Aspect of Nazism also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party. The NAZI Party combined Nationalism with a vague form of Socialism. The Party promised to improve the people’s economic and social conditions through the creation of employment, giving workers better wages and improving social services. This enabled the Party to win support from many Germans especially the industrial workers and the Unemployed.



The Versailles Peace Settlement and its humiliating terms for Germany also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party to power. This is because Hitler promised that he would get rid of the treaty and disregard its humiliating terms once he came to power. This gained Hitler a lot of support since the Versailles Treaty was hated by the Germans.



Militarism also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party. The NAZI Party spoke and acted violently. The Storm Troopers provided an outlet for German Militarism. The Ex-servicemen, the youth and the unemployed supported the NAZI Party because it promised to return and restore Germany to its former position as one of the world’s leading military powers through conscription and rearmaments.



Propaganda was also another reason that led to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party. Hitler used propaganda to win support from the Public. This was the distortion of the truth or the telling of outright lies in order to discredit the Weimar Republic. Joseph Goebbels was put in charge of the NAZI propaganda machine.



The Final reason for Hitler’s rise to power was the Great Economic Depression of 1929 and its effects. In 1929, the USA was hit by an economic depression. The depression spread to Europe and the most affected was Germany. America’s loans and investments to Germany were withdrawn. Suddenly many Germany companies were closed down leading to food Shortages, inflation and unemployment which rose rapidly from 1.5million in 1929 to 6 million by 1932. As the economic crisis deepened, support for 64

anti-democratic parties such as the NAZI party and the communist Party increased. Hitler took advantage of the situation to rise to power. HITLER’S DOMESTIC/HOME POLICIES. Aims of Hitler’s Home Policies. He wanted to consolidate power to himself. He wanted to eliminate all opposition. Hitler wanted to bring law and order in Germany. He wanted to achieve economic recovery for Germany. Features of Hitler’s Home Policies. 1) Enabling Laws-1934. In 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor. He immediately decided to hold fresh elections in the hope of gaining an increased majority in the Reichstag (parliament). In order to discredit the communists who were his political rivals, Hitler blamed them for starting a fire that burned down the Reichstag. He also used the storm Troopers to Break up meetings of the Communists and other people who opposed the NAZI Party. When the elections were finally held, the NAZI Party only managed 44% of the votes. This was below what Hitler had expected. However, this did not prevent Hitler from assuming ultimate power in Germany. He persuaded Parliament to pass Enabling Laws. These Laws gave Hitler powers to rule as a dictator for 4 years. In 1934, President Hindenberg died. Hitler combined the powers of president and Chancellor and became the most powerful person in Germany. He became the supreme ruler. The passing of the Enabling Laws marked the beginning of the “Rule of Terror” in Germany. During the years that followed and using the Enabling Laws; 

All rival political Parties were banned with their leaders

banished from

Parliament. 

All Newspapers that criticized the NAZI Party and Hitler were shut down.



All trade Unions were banned and replaced by the German Labour Front. Wages and working conditions were controlled by the NAZI Party. Workers were not allowed to go on strike. 65



All the local governments were put under the control of the NAZI loyalists.

2) Propaganda. Both Children and Adults were indoctrinated into NAZI ideas, racial theories and antiSemitism. Children were indoctrinated in schools and as youths, they were required to join the Hitler Youth Movement which taught NAZI ideas and groomed future NAZI leaders. Joseph Goebbels was the Minister of Propaganda. The press (Newspapers, Radios and TVs) posters and political rallies were some of the propaganda means that the NAZI Party used to indoctrinate the adults. The role of women in Hitler’s Germany was summed up in three words, “Children, Church and Future”. Incentives were given to women with large families and newly married couples. According to Hitler, Germany needed a large population to be enrolled in the army.

3) The Gestapo This was a secret Police force whose aim was to arrest, murder and imprison or sent to concentration Camps people who were against Hitler and the NAZI Party. The Gestapo had members in most of the institutions in Germany.

4) The Night of Long Knives. On the night of 30th June, 1934, the leader of the Storm Troopers, Ernest Rhoem was arrested and killed by the Gestapo. On the same night, a total number of 5,000 to 7,000 Germans who were suspected of opposing Hitler and the NAZI Party were also arrested and murdered by the SCHUTZ STAFFEL (SS). The Storm Troppers became a threat to Hitler because their leader started pressurizing Hitler to turn the Storm Troopers into a National Army as he had been promised When Hitler used them to rise to power. This incident became known as the “Night of Long Knives”.

5) The Jews and the Nuremberg Laws-1935. Hitler’s Germany was not a place for one to be born a Jew because Hitler hated the Jews. He blamed them for all the sufferings that Germany experienced i.e. Germany’s defeat and suffering after the 1st world war. When Hitler assumed Power, he made it very clear 66

that the Jews were not welcome in Germany. He organized anti-Jewish propaganda and gangs of NAZI thugs to burn down Jewish Synagogues. They also smashed up Jewish homes. Germans were ordered not to buy from Jewish shops. Life was generally bad for the Jews in Germany. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were passed. These took away many rights from the Jews e.g. the Jews were not allowed to hold any government posts and offices. They were not allowed to work as lawyers, or doctors in Government institutions. They were forced to ware “the star of David” so that they could easily be identified in Public. They were made to use special buses and shops specifically made for the Jews. Marriages between the Jews and non-Jews were forbidden. Many Jews were forced to escape in Fear of their lives. Those who remained behind were taken to Concentration Camps. Between 1939 and 1945, over 6 million Jews died in German Concentration Camps.

6) Hitler and the Church. Hitler came into conflict with the Church over his ill-treatment of the Jews and the passing of the Nuremberg Laws which deprived the Jews of their rights. Both the Catholics and the Protestants were against the Nuremberg Laws. Hitler imposed the following measures on the Church’ 

The Church was deprived of its control over finances.



Participation in church affairs was made illegal.



Protestant pastors were arrested and sent to concentration camps and charged with the “Misuse of the Pulpit.

7) Economic Features of Hitler’s Home policies. When Hitler assumed power, he appointed a brilliant banker Dr. Schacht to take charge of the Economy. He Kept industries in Private hands while the state determined what was to be produced. To encourage economic growth, the state gave loans to industrialists at a low interest. During his first four years in office, Hitler reduced unemployment from 6 million to fewer than 1 million. To achieve this, he; 

Established the National Labour Service which undertook public works such as Building of roads, bridges and railways. 67



Introduced compulsory military service to provide employment in the army.



Employed people in the arms industries that produced bombs, guns, aeroplanes etc.



Stopped women from working so that they could be more jobs for men.



Set up industries that produced synthetic products. These served as substitutes such as for rubber. Farmers were not allowed to leave the land



Gave Germany workers medical care and were encouraged to make culture visits and take cheap holidays which were organized by the state. The Germans were also encouraged to buy the “People’s Vehicle” the Volkswagen. By 1939, Germany had one of the highest stardards of living in Europe and strongest economies.

HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICIES 1933-1945. Between 1933 and 1939, Hitler followed an aggressive Foreign Policy that led to the Outbreak of the Second World War of 1939 to 1945. Aims of Hitler’s Foreign Policies. i.

He wanted to acquire more living space(Lebensraum) for Germany

ii.

Hitler wanted to rearm Germany and restore it to its former glory and prestige.

iii.

He wanted to disregard and break the terms of the Versailles Treaty.

iv.

He wanted a Union with Austria (Anshluss).

v.

He also wanted to unite all Germans in Europe.

In order to achieve these aims, Hitler did the following things; 

He talked about the need to maintain peace in Europe while he rearmed Germany.



He openly called for the creation of a stronger Germany to help in the fight against communism.



He also gave the impression that his ambitions were limited when in reality they were not.

For many years, Hitler used the above excuses to rearm Germany and break the terms of the Versailles Treaty and carry out acts of aggression against other nations. The other European

68

States such as Britain and France did little or nothing to condemn Hitler and to control his activities. This made Hitler to take advantage and commit more acts of aggression. FEATURES OF HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY.  Non-Aggression Pact with Poland In 1934, Germany and Poland signed a Non-Aggression Pact. The Pact ended friction between the two countries over the Polish Corridor and the Port of Danzig. It was to remain in full force for 10years. Hitler had no immediate intensions of occupying Poland. He also wanted Poland to serve as a buffer between Germany and Russia.

 The Occupation of the Saar Region. In 1935, the Saarlanders held a referendum to decide the future of their coal rich region. They had to decide whether to be part of France or Germany. They voted in favor of Germany with the influence of NAZI propaganda. This showed that German Nationalism in Europe was still very high.  German Rearmament. In 1934, Germany withdrew from the Geneva Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations. This was because Germany was denied the equality of arms with other European Countries. Hitler immediately embarked on an ambitious

program

of

rearmament. The program included the building of an Air Force and the construction of Submarines which were forbidden by the Versailles Treaty. It also involved the use of Conscription to expand the Germany Army. In this rearmament program, Germany was encouraged by Britain e.g. Germany and Britain entered into an agreement called the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. By this agreement, Britain allowed Germany to build her navy to 1/3 of that of British Naval power. The agreement also allowed Germany to build submarines.  The Occupation of the Rhineland. 69

During the period 1935-1936, attention of most European Countries was diverted to the Italian invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Hitler took a gamble and ordered German troops to occupy the Rhineland. He this with the Knowledge that what he was doing was against the Versailles Treaty and the Locarno Pact. This gamble paid off because the other European Countries did not protest against Hitler’s actions. The Rhineland and the Saar region provided a buffer for Germany on the Western front against France. This event convinced Hitler that the allied powers and the League of Nations were weak.  Alliances. The year 1936 saw the division of the world into two groups. On one hand there were the militants while on the other hand there were the non-militants. During the 1936 Spanish Civil War, Germany and Italy helped General Franco to establish a Pre-fascist dictatorship in Spain. In the same year, German recognized the Italian occupation of Ethiopia. This led to a closer relationship between Germany and Italy. This led to the signing of the Rome-Berlin Tokyo Axis, a communication link between the two dictators. In the same year, 1936, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Commutern Pact. The Anti-Commutern Pact was against communism and the two agreed to crush communism and to inform each other on communist activities in their countries. Germany, Italy and Japan came together and signed am alliance called the Roe-Berlin-Tokyo Axis in 1937. This was a military alliance.  Union with Austria (Anshluss). In 1934, Germany had attempted to Unite with Austria but was effectively blocked by Italian Troops at Bremmer Pass. Germany wanted a union with Austria because Austria comprised of 80% German People and a union between the two would ensure a more powerful Germany. In 1934, German troops occupied Austria. Hitler used the excuse that The Austrian Government was unable to provide law and order to the Germans living in Austria. The Union between Austria and Germany was achieved at a very high cost of disregard for the Versailles Treaty. However, no action was taken against Germany by the European Countries This made Hitler to commit more acts of aggression. 70

 The Occupation of Sudetenland. In 1938, Germany troops occupied Sudetenland, a province of Czechoslovakia. Sudetenland had a lot of Germans. In addition, the province was rich in resources and highly industrialized. According to Hitler, the Sudetenland Germans were being persecuted by the Czechoslovakian government. This was because the government had used military force to stop a rebellion incited by Germany. After the occupation, a conference was called for in Munich Germany and was attended by representatives from Germany, Britain and France. The allied powers gave in to Hitler’s demands in the hope that lasting peace would be found at last in Europe. However, this was not to be the case as Hitler was encouraged to continue with his acts of aggression against neighboring states.  The Occupation of Czechoslovakia. In March 1939, German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia. The then British Prime Minister Charmblain condemned Hitler’s actions as Hitler had promised not to occupy anymore territories in Europe. The British Prime Minister also promised to help Poland, Hitler’s next target, in the event of an invasion from Germany. France made a similar promise. The same promise was extended to Greece, Romania and later Turkey. The British House of Lords allowed the Government to expand the army through conscription in readiness for war.  The Invasion of Poland. Before the invasion of Poland, Germany signed the Pact of Steel with Italy. The two countries agreed to help each other if one went to war. In the same year, Germany signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Russia. Russia was promised Eastern Poland after the defeat of Poland by Germany. Hitler drew Russia into the alliance because he did not want Germany to fight a war on two fronts. On 1st September, 1939, Germany troops invaded Poland. This marked the beginning of the 2nd World War.

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QUESTIONS. 1. What were the aims of Adolf Hitler’s Foreign Policies from 1933 to 1934? Explain how he attempted to achieve them by referring to his policy towards (a) Austria (b) Czechoslovakia (c) Poland.{7, 7, 7}

2. Explain how each of the following helped Hitler and the NAZI Party to win Support from the German People between 1918 and 1933. (a) The Treaty of Versailles (b) The Great Inflation of 1923 (c) The World Depression of 1929 {7,7,7}

3. What Acts of aggression and Treaty breaking were committed by Hitler in the Years 1933-1939? Show how these events led to the Outbreak of The Second World War. {15.5}. 4. Describe Hitler’s Home Policy up to September 1939. {20}. 5. What were Hitler’s aims in his Foreign policy? What steps did he take to achieve them between 1933 and 1939? {20}

6. Write brief notes on the following; (a) The Nuremberg Laws (b) The Night of Long Knives (c) Joseph Goebbels (d) The Gestapo {5,5,5,5}

7. Discuss how Hitler contributed to the Outbreak of the Second World War. {20}

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ITALY AND THE RISE OF BENITO MUSSOLINI AND THE FASCIST PARTY. Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 at Dovia in Italy. He was from a middle class family. His father was a black smith while his mother was a teacher. As a young boy, Mussolini was headstrong and stabborn and he got expelled from one school to another due to his violence. He qualified as a teacher but later left to become a journalists in Switzerland. In the beginning, he could not find employment and ended up doing odd jobs to keep himselve from starving. Mussolini also studied the works of Nietzsche on the theory of “Superman” as well as other philosophers. In Switzerland, he became a communist and organized strikes and demonstrations against the government. In 1904, he was expelled from Switzerland due to his radical views. He went back to Italy and continued as a journalist. In 1906, Mussolini became a socialist agitator. In 1908, he went to Trent and continued with his journalism. He became the editor of Avanti, which was a newspaper for the Italian Socialist Party. In his socialist Views, Mussolini denounced Militarism, imperialism, religion and War. He was arrested for 5 months for his anti-militarist views. When the First World War broke out, Mussolini changed his views and advocated for Italy to join the war on the side of the Allied Powers after the signing of the Secret treaty of London of 1915. His desire was to see Italian territory enlarge by the acquiring of Trentino and Triesse which were promised to Italy in the Treaty by the allied Powers. As a result of his advocacy for war, Mussolini was expelled from the Socialist Party. In 1915, he joined the Italian Army and fought in the First World War. However, in 1916, he was wounded by an accidental explosion and was discharged from the Army on medical grounds. Mussolini was proud of the part he played in the war and saw himself as a hero and a survivor for his motherland. He was however disappointed by the Treaty of Versailles for Italy and the chaos that prevailed in Italy after the war. In 1919, he formed the Fascio-de-Combattimento (battle group). This was the beginning of the Fascist Movement in Europe. In 1921, Mussoloni formed the Fascist Party. REASONS FOR MUSSOLINI’S RISE TO POWER.

73

The rise of Mussolini and the Fascist party to power was a s a result of the Post Unification and the Post-War Problems n Italy.  Italy’s Post Unification Problems. i.

There was a wide gap in the level development between the rich Industrial North and the peasant dominated poverty stricken south where ignorance, disease, hunger and unemployment were wide spread. The people were unhappy with the Government’s failure to solve this imbalance in development.

ii.

The Democratic system of government failed the Italian people. It was corrupt and inefficient and many people were prepared to use force to remove it.

iii.

Following the Unification of Italy, the Pope and the Catholic Church lost a lot of land to the new State of Italy. This led to friction between the State and the Church. The new state of Italy banned all Italian Catholics from voting and entering Parliament. As a reaction to this ban, the Pope banned all catholics from supporting the Government. This greatly weakened democracy in Italy since the majority of Italians were Catholics.

iv.

The continuity in the increase of the Italian Population also led to severe land shortages. This resulted in conflicts between the Landowners and peasants which the government could not solve. The only other option was to acquire land outside Italy.

v.

Life in the towns and cities of Italy was characterized by violence, riots strikes and rebellions which the government could not solve.

 Post War problems in Italy. After the 1st World War, Italy faced a number of problems which also contributed to Mussolini’s rise to power. Most of the post unification problems were carried over to the post war period. This made the situation worse in Italy after the 1st World war. The Post war problems were; a) The Versailles Peace Settlement; The Italians were disappointed by the Versailles Peace Settlement of 1918. Italy was not given the territories she was promised by Britain and France in The Secret Treaty of London in 1915. This was despite her 74

participation in the war on the side of the Allied Powers as per agreement. Italy was also not given a share of Germany’s territories as she had hoped. This was despite the fact that 6,000 Italians died during the war. The Italian people blamed their government for failing to get what Italy fought for during the War. Mussolini used this to rise to power by promising that he would get back was due to Italy once he was in power. As such, most patriot Italians supported Mussolini.

b) Democracy; The failure of democracy in Italy also led to Mussolini and the Fascist Party to rise to power. After the war, many political parties existaed in Italy and none of them commanded a clear majority in parliament to form a government. As a result, Coalition Governments were formed from time to time but they failed to give Italians a stable government because they quarreled more than finding solutions to Italy’s problems. Italians wanted a government of a strong party and Leadership. Therefore, Mussolini and his Fascist party were seen as a solution. c) Economic and Social Problems; Italy’s post-war economic and social problems helped Mussolini to rise to power. The production of goods fell and prices doubled while the Lira lost its value. Unemployment also worsened with dismissed workers, demobilized soldiers and the Jobless youths. The unemployed crowded the cities and this led to wide spread violence, riots and strikes which led to the total Breakdown in Law and order. As such, Mussolini promised to solve all these problems once he came to power and was fully supported by the Italian people.

d) Communism; The growth of communism in Italy after the first World war contributed to Mussolini’s rise to power. The growth of communism was a direct threat to the industrialists and rich landowners. Communism was spreading at a very fast rate among the poor and industrial workers. Mussolini and his Fascist Party won support from the rich and powerful industrialists and land owners who opposed communism as he promised to wipe out communism once he came to power. 75

e) Colonies; Italy’s need for colonies also helped Mussolini and the Fascists to assume power in Italy. Colonies were necessary fro the raw materials and markets for finished products. Rapid population increase led to the demand for more land. More than 80% of Italian territory was mountainous while migrations to the USA and the rest of Europe were forbidden because the other countries were preserving jobs for their demobilized soldiers. Mussolini promised to acquire territories for Italy.

f) State Conflict with the Church; The Conflict between the Church and the State also contributed to Mussolini’s rise to power. The conflict was as a result of the seizure of Church property by the State in 1870. The Pope urged the Catholics to stop taking part in State affairs. The majority of Italians being Catholics supported the Church in the conflict with the state. Mussolini took advantage of this situation and promised to solve the problems between the Church and the State once he came to power. This earned him almost 90% of the votes from the Italian people. STAGES OF MUSSOLINI’S RISE TO POWER. Italy’s post unification and post war problems provided the background for Mussolini’s rise to power. The stages of his rise to power were;  The First step that Mussolini took to rise to power was to form a Milan Fascist Group called the Fascio-de-Combattimento (Fighting/Battle group) in 1919. The squad was made up of several hundreds of dismissed workers, demobilized soldiers and jobless youths. This group attacked the communists and broke up their meetings while their opponents were tortured and made to drink castor oil. The Patriotic young men were dissatisfied with the Chaos and the general disorder and the inability by the government to deal with it. They were willing to support any man who promised to find solutions to Italy’s problems. Mussolini turned out to be their potential savior.  The second step Mussolini took to rise to power was that he turned the Fascio-deCombattimento into a political party called the National Fascist Party in 1921.The 76

Party adopted Black Shirts as its symbol and uniform. During the 1920-1922, there was confusion in the Italian Parliament because there were many political parties that were evenly marched. The Political parties formed a coalition governments which were not effective. In order to strengthen the fragile Italian Government, Mussolini demanded cabinet posts in 1922 when 22 Fascist members were elected to parliament. However, this demand was rejected.  Mussolini’s last step in his rise to power was the famous historic “March on Rome” in 1922. After the rejection of his demand for cabinet posts for the Fascist representatives in the Italian government, Mussolini decided to challenge the government by force. Mussolini demanded for the resignation of the of the Italian Prime Minister Luigi Facta. Facta refused to resign and instead recommended stern Military action against the Fascists. As such, on 28th October, 1922, more than a 100,000 fascists volunteered undertook a historic “March on Rome” unopposed. The army could not disperse the Fascists and the Italian King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Luigi Facta and his government and invited Mussolini to form a new government. Mussolini became the Italian Prime Minister on 30th October, 1922. This marked the rise of Mussolini and the Fascist Party to power.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF FASCIST DICTATORSHIP IN ITALY. After coming to power, Mussolini took steps to consolidate Fascist rule in Italy. He combined the post of Prime Minister with that of Home and Foreign affairs minsters. He then persuaded the government to allow him to rule as a dictator for one year under the pretext of maintaining law and order. However, Mussolini kept these dictatorial powers until his death in 1943. During the one Year, Mussolini turned the Fascist Army into a private army. Its main aim was to deal with opponents of Fascism. In the same year, Mussolini increased the strength of the Italian army. He also gave key posts in the army and local governments to loyal members of the Fascists Party. In 1924, Mussolini decided to hold general elections in order to give legitimacy to his government. Before the elections were held, the Acerbo Laws passed in 1923. These laws gave 2/3 of the seats in Parliament to any Party that obtained the largest number of votes in the impending elections. 77

In order to ensure Fascist victory, the Fascists beat up, tortured and terrorised their political opponents. When the elections were finally held, the Fascists rigged the elections and finally won 85% of the votes and were given the 2/3 of the seats in Parliament. Giacomo Matteotti was the leader of the Socialist party and a well known critic of Mussolini and the Fascist Party. He criticized the results and conduct of the 1924 elections. He also wrote a Pamphlet entitled “Fascists Exposed” in which he brought out the evidence concerning the violence and rigging of the elections by the Fascists. On the 10th of June, 1924, Matteotti was murdered. Mussolini and the Fascist Party were blamed for his death. Many political parties protested while some withdrew from parliament and were not allowed to return. Mussolini and the Fascist Party organized fake trials for the who were said to have been responsible for the murder but were either acquitted or given light sentences. Following the death of Matteotti, there was an increase in criticism against Mussolini and the Fascist party. In 1925, Mussolini shut down all anti-fascist newspapers. Intowns and cities, all democratically elected mayors were replaced with Fascists. Mussolini began to assume more and more power, for example, he made laws without the consent of Parliament and the King in some cases. In 1926, Mussolini abolished all non-Fascist organisations and this meant that all non-Fascist political parties were banned. The Fascist Party became the only party in Italy. By this time, Mussolini became a full time dictator. MUSSOLINI’S HOME/DOMESTIC POLICIES.

Aims of His Home Policies. 

He wanted to consolidate power to himself.



He wanted to bring law and order in Italy



He also wanted to achieve economic recovery and development for Italy.

Features of Mussolini’s Home Policies. 1. Economic Battles.

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i.

The Battle of the South was launched in 1924. This was an economic policy to address poverty in the Southern Part of Italy. This battle was extremely unsuccessful.

ii.

The Battle of the Grain was launched in 1925. This was an agriculture policy aimed at making Italy self Sufficient in Wheat production. Awards of gold, silver and bronze were given to farmers who grew most wheat. This battle was very successful and by 1926, wheat production in Italy had almost doubled.

iii.

The Battle for land was launched in 1926 to increase the area of cultivatable land in Italy. This Battle involved the draining of Marshes and Swamps, ploughing tall hillsides and clearing forests and woodlands.

iv.

The battle for births was launched to increase the Italian population and ultimately, the Italian Army. Many incentives were given to people with large families’ e.g. free education and health facilities.

v.

In 1926, the Battle for the Lira was launched. This battle aimed at restoring the value of the fluctuating Italian currency.

2. Creation of a Co-operative State. The establishment of a co-operatives state was one of Mussolini’s major economic achievements. It involved the abolition of Strikes and lock outs. In 1926, Mussolini banned trade unions and employee associations and replaced them with 22 co-operatives. The co-operatives were established for people within an industry. Each co-operative comprised of representatives of Worker, employers and 3 members of the Fascist Party. The co-operatives sent representatives to the General Assembly of Co-operatives which was headed by Mussolini. The Assembly made important decisions about the country’s economic policy and about prices and wages. These cooperatives were unsuccessful because they were dictated by the Fascists. They were also generally ineffective and corrupt. In 1938, Mussolini abolished Parliament and replaced it with the Chamber of Fascists and Cooperatives. Through the introduction of the above measures, Mussolini and the Fascists controlled the political and economic life of the people of Italy.

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3. Indoctrination and Propaganda. To ensure that all Italians accepted and believed in Fascist ideas, a program of indoctrination directed at both the young and adults was introduced. The young people were bombarded with Fascist ideas in schools from textbooks and after school; they joined the youth Organisations such as Fascist Youth Movement. Adults were indoctrinated through newspapers, posters and rallies. These media glorified Mussolini and the Fascism.

4. Policy towards Religion. Mussolini needed the Support from the Pope and the Church for his dictatorship to succeed. He therefore decided to improve the state’s relationship with the Church. Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty and the Concordat with the Pope in 1929. By these treaties;  The Italian state recognized the Vatican as an independent State.  Considerable rights were given to the Pope and the Church throughout Italy.  The Italian State also promised to pay the Church 1,750 million Lira as compensation for the loss of Rome in 1870.  In turn, Catholicism became the official state religion of Italy and the Pope and the Catholic Church recognized the Kingdom of Italy and Mussolini’s rule. Therefore, there was an understanding between the Church and the State and Mussolini was assured of support and encouragement for his Fascist rule from the Pope and the Church. MUSSOLINI’S FOREIGN POLICY. Mussolini followed an aggressive and dangerous foreign policy. This foreign policy was guided by extreme Nationalism. Mussolini’s aggressive foreign policy led to international tension which contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War. Aims of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy. 

He wanted to rebuild the Roman Empire by conquering land around the Mediterranean Sea especially in North Africa.



He wanted to revenge Italy’s defeat by Ethiopia in the Famous Battle at Adowa in 1896. 80



Mussolini also aimed at making Italy a world Power through the creation of a strong Army.



Mussolini also wanted to revisit the Versailles Treaty and get what was due to Italy.

Features of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy. 1. Relationship with Other Countries. At first, Mussolini desired a closer relationship with Britain and France and was therefore careful not to offend them. Italy’s signing of the Kellogg and Locarno Pacts showed Mussolini’s willingness to co-operate with Britain and France despite being unhappy with the Versailles Treaty. At first, Mussolini regarded Hitler with suspicion and feared a strong Germany nation especially if seized Austria. In 1934, Mussolini blocked Hitler’s invasion of Austria at Bremmer Pass and joined Britain and France to form an anti-German Peace Treaty against Hitler’s actions. However, Hitler and Mussolini became friends after 1936 when they with from League of Nations after bee branded as aggressors. 2. The Corfu Crisis of 1923. Mussolini had aggressive intensions against neighboring Greece. In 1923, an Italian general Tellini and 5 members of the Italian commission were murdered by the Greeks while trying to settle a border dispute. Mussolini accused Greece of the murder and demanded compensation and an apology. Greece wanted the matter to be settled by the League of Nations. Mussolini refused the League’s intervention. Before a solution could be found, Mussolini invaded the Greek Islands of Corfu. This incident showed the aggressive nature of Mussolini and made the relations with Britain and France to be unstable. 3. The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia/Ethiopia. Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia in 1935/1936 was a typical example of his aggressive foreign policy. Mussolini had promised the Italians a colonial Empire in Africa. After the Italians occupied Somaliland and Eritrea, they wanted to Expand into the Ancient Kingdom of Abyssinia. Besides, the Italians never forgot their humiliating defeat in 1896 at the Battle of Adowa and wanted to revenge for that defeat. Taking advantage of border incidents between Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland, Mussolini invaded and occupied 81

Abyssinia. The Italian air force bombarded Ethiopia and the army seized the capital and forced the leaders into exile. The defeat of Abyssinia avenged the Italian defeat at Adowa and it meant further glory for Mussolini and an addition to the Italian Empire. The Ethiopians appealed to the League of Nations for Italy to be punished. The League Condemned Italy and banned the shipment of economic arms but there was no ban on oil, coal, iron and steel. The sanctions were too late and ineffective. Mussolini and the Italians were angered by this criticism over the invasion of Ethiopia and especially fro Britain and France, the main powers in the League of Nations. Italy withdrew from the League of Nations in 1936 and continued with the occupation of Italy until 1943. These events strained the relationship between Britain/France and Italy and also drove Mussolini and Hitler into being good friends. Hitler supported the Italian Invasion of Ethiopia. 4. The Italian Involvement in the Spanish Civil War-1936. Mussolini’s interference in the Spanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939 also led tensions in the world. The Spanish civil war was purely an internal matter between the democratically elected government and its opponents led by General Franco. General Franco wanted to set up a Fascist type of dictatorship in Spain. Mussolini sent about 7,000 troops and weapons to Spain in collaboration with Hitler. Mussolini and Hitler drew closer with their joint support in the Spanish civil war. This created tension with the Britain and France and divided the world into two camps i.e. the Dictators and the democrats. 5. Alliances. Formation of Alliances was also part of Mussolini’s foreign Policy. This also led to world tensions. Hitler and Mussolini became closer after they were criticized by the League of Nations for their aggressive acts against other countries. Both left the League and felt more and more isolated internationally. Their co-operated in supporting the Spanish Civil war finally resulted into the signing of an alliance called the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. In 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Commutern Pact between Germany and Japan which was formed in 1937 to fight against the spread of Communism. The new alliance became known as the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. This was a military alliance and it lasted until the 2nd World War. In August 1938, Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel. This 82

was a purely military alliance between the two. By this alliance, Germany and Italy promised to support each other in an event of War. By signing this treaty, Mussolini sealed the fate of Italy and his own as the 2nd World War brought about his down fall in 1943.

QUESTIONS. 1. What favored the rise of Mussolini to power in Italy after the First World War? Outline the main Features of his domestic policy from 1922 to 1939. {10,10} 2. Explain Italy’s disappointment with the outcome of the First World War. Outline the main features of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy. {4, 16}.

3. Describe the cause of discontent in Italy after the First World War. Outline the ain features of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy between 1922 and 1939. {8,12}.

4. Show how the Fascist under Mussolini rose to power in Italy by 1924. What were Mussolini’s Domestic Policies? {8, 12}. 5. What were the aims of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy? Describe his relationship with; (a) The Pope (b) Foreign Powers {6,7,7} 6. Describe Italy’s post Unification problems. Discuss the Italian Acts of Aggression that were committed between 1922 and 1939. {10,10}

7. (a) What were the post war problems that Italy faced? (c) Who supported the Fascist Party? (d) What benefit did Fascism bring to the Italians? {7,7,7}.

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THE SECOND WORLD WAR 1939-1945. The Second World War took place between 1939 and 1945. The Second World War was much more destructive then the first because it was being fought on many fronts. The 2nd World War was also referred to as the Second European War. The causes of the Second World War were similar to those of the first. However, historians have agreed that the Second World War was a war of revenge initiated by Germany under Hitler.

LONG TERM CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR.  The Versailles Treaty-1919; The Treaty of Versailles had origins of the Second World War. The terms of the treaty were very unfair to countries such as Germany, Italy and Austria Hungary. Germany especially was badly treated. She was forced to sign the “War Guilty” clause. She suffered territorial losses, forced to pay reparations and her army was dismantled. These unfair terms forced Hitler to seek revenge when he came to power in 1933. Hitler followed an aggressive foreign policy that led to the Outbreak of the 2 nd World War.  The Establishment of Dictatorships in Europe; this also acted as a cause of the war. In 1922, Mussolini established a dictatorship in Italy, in 1933, Hitler established one in Germany and General Franco established one in Spain with the help of Hitler and Mussolini in 1936. This divided Europe into two camps of dictators and democracies i.e. Italy, Germany and Spain on one hand and Britain and France on the other. This division represented a conflict of ideologies. This was because democratic states stood for the maintenance of Status Quo while the dictators had expansionist aims and demanded

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additional territories on grounds of prestige, glory and strategy. This led to aggressive acts by Germany, Italy and Japan.  The System of Alliances; the dictators also formed alliances against other countries. As a result of their common interests, Mussolini and Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. In the same year, Germany signed the Anti-Commutern Pact with Japan. In 1937, the three dictators signed the Rome-Berlin Tokyo Axis. In August 1939, Hitler and Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel. These military alliances that were signed led to the division of the world into two camps just like before the 1st world war. These camps were the allied Powers and the aggressive powers. These camps started preparing for War.  The Failure of Collective Security; The failure of collective security under the League of Nations also contributed to the outbreak of War. The main purpose of the League of Nations had been to eliminate any possibilities of an outbreak of War. However, the outbreak of the 2nd World War was due to the fact that the League of Nations had failed to carryout effective disarmaments and stops the aggressive acts of some of its major member countries e.g. the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1936 and the many acts of aggression committed by Hitler. When the League of Nations condemned such actions, the aggressors left the League to commit more acts of aggression.  The Policy of Appeasement; This was a policy that was followed by Britain and France which also contributed to the outbreak of the 2nd World War. The Western democracies allowed Hitler and Mussolini to carryout acts of aggression in the name of stopping the Communism. The Communist Soviet Union was seen as a worst enemy as compared to Fascist aggression. This policy of appeasement was clearly seen at the Munich Conference of 1938 and the consequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia. The other reason for following this policy was that Britain and France were not yet ready for another war and did not want to provoke Hitler. By following this policy, they were buying more time. The other reason was that Britain and France felt guilty for the way they treated Germany at the Versailles Peace Settlement. 85

The Policy of appeasement allowed Hitler and Mussolini to carryout acts of aggression against weaker democracies. In allowing this, Britain and France Underestimated Hitler’s ambitions and abilities. Therefore, the Second World War was as a result of the miscalculations of the statesmen of the democratic countries.  The 1929 World Economic Depression; The depression also acted as cause of the 2nd World War because it led to the collapse of Democracies and the rise of Dictatorships e.g. the collapse of the Weimar Republic and the Rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party in Germany.  Imperialist Policies of Japan, Italy and Germany; As a result of the loss of territories in the Versailles Treaty, the colonial world was divided between Britain and France. Hence Germany and Italy wanted to recapture what they had lost in Africa and Europe. Japan on the other hand had increased her imperialist ambitions after 1st world and these mostly targeted China.  Arms Race; After Hitler pulled out of the Geneva Disarmament Conference in 1934 and started rapid re-armament, the other countries were threatened and also started preparing for war. This created an atmosphere for war just like before the 1st World War.  German Invasion of Poland; this acted as the immediate cause of the War. Germany invaded Poland on 1st September, 1939. When Hitler invaded Poland, Britain and France gave an ultimatum to Germany to withdraw her troops by 3rd September, 1939. When this ultimatum expired, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

COURSE/STAGES OF THE WAR. The Second World War was fought on many fronts some of which were as follows; (a) The Western Front; In 1939, Germany attacked and defeated Poland within 6 weeks. At first, there was no actual fighting between Britain and France and Germany. This was because Britain and France were not ready for War. From September 1939 to April 1940, 86

the two sides were still organizing themselves. This period was referred to as the period of the “Phony War” However, after April 1940, Germany used “Blitzkrieg” which meant “war of lightening”. This was a plan that Hitler formulated to quickly defeat and occupy Denmark, Norway, Belgium and France. The invasion of these countries was code named “Operation Yellow”. After the defeat of the above mentioned Countries, in September 1940, Germany Launched “Operation Sea Lion”. Operation Sea Lion was the code Name for the German Invasion of Britain. Hitler used the German Air Force called the Luftwaffe to bombard Britain in order to weaken her. The main assault i.e. Operation SeaLion was supposed to have been an attack from the Sea. The resulting fighting between Germany and Britain was referred to as the “Battle for Britain”. However, germany failed to defeat Britain because by this time, Britain had prepared adequately for the war.

(b) The Mediterranean, Middle East and North Africa. In 1940, Italy was certain that Germany would win the war. She therefore joined the war on the side of Germany. Italy invaded Greece, Yugoslavia, Crete, Malta, Egypt and Libya. Italy owed her victories in these battles to the help she was given by Germany. By 1943, Germany was unable to provide help to Italy. This resulted into Italy’s defeat.

(c) The Eastern Front. The main war on the Eastern Front was between Germany and Russia. The Code Name for the German invasion of Russia was “Operation Barbarosa”. Germany invaded Russia in 1941. By 1942, Germany troops advanced in Russia as far as Stalingrad and were almost certain of victory over Russia. In 1943, Russia entered into a Lend/Lease Scheme with the USA. This Scheme enabled Russia to obtain tanks and other war materials from the USA. This Scheme greatly enhanced Russia’s progress in the war. By 1945, the Russians managed to drive the Germans out of Russia and captured East Germany. The success of the Russian troops in 1945 was partly due to fact that the German troops were not adequately prepared for the severe Russian winters.

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(d) War In the Pacific and Asia. War in the Pacific and Asia was perpetuated by Japan. Japan wanted to expand her Empire and win major areas of oil, rice and other resources for her allies. Before the outbreak of the 2nd World War, Japan had occupied Manchuria (1931) and North China (1937). In 1941, Japan Captured Indo-China and on 1st December the same year, she attacked the US naval base in the Pacific called Pearl Harbour in Hawaii. ON 5TH December, 1941, the USA officially declared war on Japan, Germany and Italy. Britain also declared war on Japan. During the year that followed, Japan captured the Gawnwake Islands, and the US held Philippines. In 1942, Japan also captured Burma, Malaysia, the Dutch East Indies and Singapore also surrendered to Japan.

ALLIED VICTORY IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR. Allied Victory in Europe. In 1943, the tide of war changed in favor of the allies, with the entry of the USA in to the war. The USA entered the war with fresh soldiers, advanced weapons and financial assistance. The USA also took over the Allied Leadership. In the summer of 1943, the allied powers conquered and Liberated North Africa from Italian occupation. In autumn of 1943, Italy was defeated. Just before the Italian Defeat, there was a revolution in Italy against the Fascists. Mussolini was arrested but managed to escape. In September 1943, Italy surrendered unconditionally. Mussolini was again captured in 1945 and was shot dead by the Italians themselves. Between August and September 1944, France was liberated from Germany Occupation. The Liberation of France was launched on 22nd June, 1944 at Normandy, a small French Coastal town. This day was referred to as the “D-Day”. In 1945, the Russians drove the German troops out of Russia and occupied the Eastern part of Germany. On 8th May, 1945, some of Germany’s smaller allies such as Bulgaria, Rumania and Finland were also defeated. In May, 1945, the allied powers launched a final attack on Germany which was code named “Operation Jubilee”. Hitler committed suicide and Germany made an unconditional surrender and Berlin was occupied by the allied forces.

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Allied Victory in the Pacific and Asia. Between 1942 and 1945, Japan lost most of her territorial gains in the Pacific and Asia to the USA. In 1942, the USA sank Japanese Aircraft carriers and ships in the Coral and Midway Islands. Between 1943 and 1945, American troops captured the Islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa while the British captured Burma. After the fall of Italy and Germany, the allies turned their full force on Japan. By February, 1945 it was clear that Japan was losing the war as she had been surrounded by the allied Powers. The allies demanded that Japan should surrender unconditionally but Japan rejected the demand. On the 6th and the 9th of August, 1945, the USA dropped Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. On 14th August, 1945, Japan surrendered and the Second World war ended.

REASONS FOR INITIAL VICTORIES FOR GERMANY AND HER ALLIES. During the initial stages of the War, Germany and her allies achieved Initial Victories due to the following; i.

Germany Generals were skilled in war while the troops were brave and efficient.

ii.

Hitler had carefully planned and prepared for the war since he rose to power in 1933.

iii.

The Swiftness with which the Generals carried out the war enabled them to achieve early victories. (War of Lightening-Blitzkrieg).

iv.

The Allied powers were not ready for the War. As a result, they were involved in a Phony War. This gave Germany an advantage.

v.

Germany and the Axis Powers maintained an element of surprise in all their attacks. This ensured victory in all the wars they fought.

REASONS FOR THE FINAL DEFEAT OF GERMANY AND THE AXIS POWRES. 

Germany’s victory in the Second World War was dependant on the Success of Blitzkrieg. The Survival of Britain in 1940 kept the Western front alive until the USA entered the War.



After 1943, the allies knew how to counteract Blitzkrieg using air support and aircraft carriers. They also built up air and Naval supremacy which enabled them to win battles

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in the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. They also used this advantage to slowly starve the Axis powers of essential supplies. 

The Axis Powers took on too much. They fought the war against too many countries at the same time e.g. Hitler’s war against Britain involved not only Britain but her entire colonial Empire and at the same time, Hitler was fighting Russia on the Eastern Front.



The entry of the USA also contributed to the final defeat of the Axis Powers. The USA brought with it financial relief and fresh soldiers when Britain was completely exhausted while Germany and the Axis Powers did not have such help.



Towards the end of the War, German Soldiers became undisciplined and Hitler lost popularity while the allied forces were fully supported by their people.



Germany had weak allies such as Bulgaria, Rumania and Finland and these could not help much towards the end of the War.



The Axis Powers were not as advanced as the Allied powers technologically and scientifically e.g. the allied forces’ invention of the Radar and Atomic Bomb.



From the beginning of the war, the allied forces used what is referred to as “Total Warfare”. This was using all the available material and human resources for the war. But Hitler did not use women initially.

RESULTS/EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR.  Loss of Human Life; During the Second World War, it is estimated that about 12 million people died in the U.S.S.R, 8 million in Germany, 6 million in Poland, 4 million in France and about 2.5 million in Britain.  Destruction of Property; The worst property damage was recorded in Russia and was worth £30 million. Most of the European cities were also destroyed especially in Britain. These only recovered due to financial assistance from the USA in the Marshal plan after the War.  The Second World War also led to the Emergency of Two Super Powers, the USA and the USSR. This was because the balance of power in the World was upset. This was due to the fact that before the 2nd World War, the balance of power had been concentrated in Europe i.e. in Britain, Germany and France. The Second World War led to the destruction of these powers. 90

 Emergency of The Cold War; the war also led to the emergency of the Cold War which was characterized by tensions and conflicts between capitalist USA and the Communist USSR and their respective supporters.  Environmental Impact; The 2nd World War also had serious environmental impact as a result of the nuclear weapons and especially the dropping of the Atomic Bombs on Japan.  The 2nd World War also led to the division of Germany into East and West Germany.  The war also led to the formation of the United Nations.

QUESTIONS. 1. Show how the war which began with the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 became a World War by the end of 1941. {20}.

2. Write on ant THREE of the following Aspects of the Second World War; (a) Operation Sea Lion. (b) Operation Barbarosa. (c) The North African War. (d) The Normandy Landings. (e) The Pearl Harbour. {7,7,7} 3. What were the reasons for the Outbreak of the 2nd World War in 1939? {20}

4. What was the Policy of Appeasement? Why was it followed and how did it contribute to the Outbreak of the Second World War. {20}.

5. Describe the Role played by the USA in the Second World War. Give reasons for the final defeat of Germany and the Axis Powers.{10,10}.

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THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION. The United Nations Organisation came into existence during the Second World War as a result of the Failure of the League of Nations. The League of Nations had failed in its most important task of maintaining world peace and security. As such, there was need to establish another world organisation to maintain peace after the defeat of the Axis powers in the 2nd World War. President F.D Roosevelt of the USA initiated the idea for a world organisation to maintain World peace and security. The UN came into existence on 26th June, 1945 after 50 countries signed the United Nations Charter at the San Francisco Conference in the USA. However, the UN started its Operation on 24th October, 1945 with its Headquarters in New York.

STEPS THAT LED TO THE FORMATION OF THE U.N.O. Plans for the formation of the UN were laid down long before the 2nd World War ended. This was done through a series of meetings and conferences among the allied Nations. These talks were initiated by President Roosevelt of the USA. The First step leading to the formation of the UN was the signing of the Atlantic Charter of August 1941. This agreement was signed between President Roosevelt of the USA and the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. This meeting took place on board a British Battleship called the “Prince of Wales”. By this Charter, the two leaders to create a more Permanent system of General Security that would ensure freedom for all people and international cooperation between all nations after the defeat of the Axis Powers. The signing of the Atlantic Charter was followed by the Washington Declaration of January 1942. This was a speech by president Roosevelt outlining the terms of the Atlantic Charter which had laid down guidelines for the formation of a “united nations”. The Washington Declaration was signed by 26 Countries who also pledged to aid in the achievements of the Atlantic Charter and the defeat of the Axis Powers. In October, 1943, the Moscow Conference was held in the USSR. The Conference was attended by President Roosevelt, Churchill of Britain, Stalin of the USSR and the host and Chiang Kai Shek of China. The leaders discussed details of the plans of the work of the UN.

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The Moscow Conference was followed by a series meetings between August and October 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks Conference near Washington D.C. The aim of this Conference was to prepare ground work for the final formation of the UN. At this conference, the countries represented agreed on the main Structure of the UN and paying particular attention to the Security Council. In February, 1945, another meeting was held in the USSR which came to be known as the Yalta Conference. Among the issues discussed were the voting procedures and eligibility to join. From 26th April to 25th June, 1945, a very important and final conference was held in San Francisco, USA. 50 countries attended this Conference and signed the drafted UN Charter. The signing of the UN Charter marked the official formation of the UN, on 26th June, 1945. Unfortunately, president Roosevelt who had initiated and coined the term “United Nations” did not live to see the final formation of the UN as he died on 12th April, 1945. The UN started its operations on 24th October, 1945 and its headquarters are based in New York, USA.

AIMS OF THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION. 

To bring international Peace and security in the world.



To achieve international cooperation in solving economic, social and political issues and problems.



To promote the respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms.



To promote friendships among member countries.



To preserve the independence of member countries.



To complete disarmament under effect control.

ORGANISATION/STRUCTURE OF THE UNITED NATIONS. The UNO’s structure comprises of 6 main organs plus specialized agencies that the help in achieving the aims of the UN. These are;  The General Assembly.

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The General Assembly is the World Parliament of the UN. It has representatives from all member countries. Each member country sends up to 5 representatives but when it comes to voting, each country had one vote regardless of the status or sie of a country. The General assembly meets annually every September for 3months. Decision Making in the General Assembly is based on a 2/3 majority. Functions. 

It is the main law making body of the UN.



Discusses and Debates on all Matters affecting the UN



Appoints the Secretary General based on Recommendations from the Security Council.



Appoints/elects members of the other organs e.g. non-permanent members of the Security Council.

 The Secretariat. The Secretariat is the Civil Service or the Data base of the UN. It carries out all the paper work of the UN. It comprises of the Secretary General who is the Chief Administrative officer of the UN. It also comprises of about 500 other members drawn from member countries. The Secretary General was chosen from a non-allied member country, had to be impartial and to have great experience in International relations. Since 1945, there has been 8 Secretary Generals. These have been; Trygve Lie fromNorway (1945-1953), Dag Hammarskjold from Sweden (1953-1961), U Thant from Burma (1961-1971), Kurt Waildheim from Austria (1972-1981), Javier Perez de Cueller from Peru (1982-1992), Boutros Boutros Ghali of Egypt (1992-1997), Koffi Annan from Ghana (1997-2007) and the current Ban Ki Moon from South Africa from January 2007. Functions. 

Sends reminders for meetings



Carries out research on issues and produces documents.



Keeps of records for the UN



Translates documents into the main world languages. 94



Carries out decisions of the General Assembly.



Supervises the work of the specialized agencies.



It is responsible for the everyday running of the UN

 The Security Council. The Security Council is the most important organ of the UN whose aim is to keep peace and security in the World. The Security Council comprises of 5 permanent and 10 non permanent members who are chosen for a two year rotational term. The 5 permanent members who are Britain, France, China, USA and USSR. The 5 permanent members have the power to Veto i.e. they can stop any motion before the council or stop any action they Security Council wanted to take. Functions. 

It recommends the appointment of the Secretary General to the General Assembly.



It recommends the admission of new members.



It is responsible for general disarmaments.



It also recommends political and economic sanctions on offending member countries.



It is also responsible for sending peace Keeping forces to war torn areas.

 The International Court of Justice. This is the international Judiciary. The headquarters of the international Court of Justice are based at The Hague in the Netherlands. The I.C.J comprises of 15 judges who are elected by the General Assembly from member countries. Functions. 

To settle disputes referred to it by member countries through legal means than resorting to war.



To give legal advise to other organs of the UN.



To interpret legal documents and treaties.

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However, the ICJ cannot enforce its decisions and a country can choose to accept or refuse its decisions thereby risking diplomatic isolation.  The Economic and Social Council. The Economic and Social Council Comprises of 18 member countries who ara elected for a 3 year term of office by the General Assembly. Functions. 

To initiate studies and produce reports on International Social, economic, culture and political issues in member countries.



To ensure protection of Human rights and freedoms in member countries.



To offer recommendations and financial assistance for the improvement of Socioeconomic situations in member countries.

 The Trusteeship Council. The Trusteeship Council was created to look after the interests of the people in the mandated colonies of the League of Nations. Functions. 

Ensure that the administering powers of the mandated colonies and not to exploit them.



To ensure that all the mandated colonies attained self-independence.

AGENCIES OF THE UNO. The specialized agencies were created to facilitate and compliment the Work of the UN organs. Among the specialized agencies are; (a) The United High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR)-the main function of this Agency is to give assistance to refugees by providing Shelter, medical help, education, clothing, clean water and ensuring that the refugees are repatriated to their countries of origin. (b) The Food and Agriculture Organisation. (FAO)- FAO works in close collaboration with the World Food Program. The aim of FAO is to ensure food security by increasing food production throughout the world. This is achieved through educating farmers about 96

more effective agriculture methods. FAO also gives loans to poor countries to improve their food production and sometimes donate food. (c) The United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organisation. (UNESCO)- this agency provides scientific research and produces and disseminates imformation on educational methods. UNESCO also aims at promoting freedom of the press and the training of teachers. (d) World Health Organisation. (WHO)-The main aim of this agency is to improve health stardards in all member countries. It also aims at promoting good health for all as a basic human right. WHO also carries out research work to eradicate contagious diseases like TB, measles, Cholera and currently working hard to find a cure/vaccine

for the

HIV/AIDS . (e) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.(I.B.R.D/World Bank)the World Bank gives loans for developmental projects to member countries such as the rehabilitation of schools, hospitals, roads etc. The World Bank also provides member countries with expert advice and assistance to identify and prepare developmental projects to make their economies more productive. (f) International Labour Organisation. (ILO)- The ILO was formed by the League of Nations after the 1st World War and it was continued after the formation of the UNO. ILO aims at improving the working conditions of all workers in member countries. It is also instrumental in the formulation of labour laws throughout the world.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE UNO. The UN has scored a number of achievements since its formation in 1945. These have been; i.

The UN has been Successful in its major task of peace Keeping in some cases since its formation in 1945. This has been done through; 

Persuading conflicting Nations to Negotiate- e.g. in 1946, Iran formally charged the USSR with interference in her internal affairs. The Security Council asked the two countries to settle their differences by direct negotiations. On 23rd May, 1946. The two reached an agreement which led to the Evacuation of Soviet troops from Iraq.



Sending observer /fact finding missions to conflicting Nations. 97



Sending peace keeping forces to conflicting nations from member to help prevent further conflicts or the re-occurrence of fighting between parties.



The UN has also been successful in Resolving Conflicts between or within member. Some examples of these are; 1. The Congo Crisis in 1960-when there was a conflict in the Congo after independence, the UN Secretary General organized an operation in the Congo. The UN intervened in the Congo and helped in Uniting Congo. The UN also helped in restoring peace in a country that was torn apart by rebellions, mutiny and civil war. (More recently, Charles Taylor and the Rebels in Liberia). 2. The Korean War 1950-3- The UN was also able to resolve the war in Korea. Korea was a Japanese Colony since 1910. After the 2nd World War, it was divided between the Capitalist USA and the Communist USSR. This led to the creation of North and South Korea. This led to a conflict between the two sides as to the kind of government to install in Korea. Under pressure from the UN, the two powers were forced to withdraw from Korea. However, in 1950, the Communist North Korea invaded the Capitalist South Korea. The UN intervened by sending UN troops to evacuate N. Korean troops from South Korea in 1953. (Give examples of more recent events if possible).

ii.

The UN has also been successful in its efforts at achieving disarmament. The UN has succeeded in discouraging armaments since its formation. The main focus of the UN has been in discouraging the use and production of Nuclear weapons. This has been achieved through the creation of a disarmament commission and the UN Nuclear Weapons Inspectorate. In 1982, the UN launched a World Disarmament Campaign that has been quiet successful though the UN still faces problems from the more powerful member states especially the super powers.

iii.

The UN has also been extremely successful through the work of its specialized agencies. It has been able to improve the Social, political and economic conditions of its member countries. This has been done through technical and financial assistance to member countries (Give examples). 98

FAILURES OF THE UNO. (a) The UN has failed in tackling issues of collective security in some areas i.e. conflicts still prevail between and among countries in Africa and the Middle East such as in Palestine and Israel. (b) The UN has also failed to control the acts of terrorism in the World especially from extremist Islamic groups e.g. the September 11 attacks on the USA and suicide bombings in Iraq and the Middle East. (c) The UN has also failed to be completely autonomous or independent from the USA and other big powers. This has been due to the fact that the big powers are the financiers of the operations of the UN. This led to the big powers to disregard the recommendations of the UN Security Council and the General Assembly e.g. the US invasion of Iraq in 2003. (d) The UN has also failed to completely eradicate some socio-economic problems threatening humanity today e.g. the issue of the HIV/AIDS and the complete eradication of poverty in the Third World countries. (e) The UN has also failed to completely disarm and impose effective sanctions on offending member countries especially the big powers.

QUESTIONS. 1. (a) What were the aims of the United Nations Organisation? (b) Describe the Composition and Functions of the following; i.

The General Assembly

ii.

The Security Council

iii.

The Secretariat.

(c) Describe two incidents that show direct UN involvement in an effort to achieve its aims.

2. Write on the following aspects of the United Nations Organisation; (a) Aims 99

(b) The Composition and functions of: i.

The General Assembly

ii.

The Security Council

iii.

The Secretariat

(c) The Functions of the Following agencies; i.

World Health Organisation (WHO)

ii.

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)

iii.

The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR)

3. (a) State the aims of the United Nations Organisation and describe the functions of FOUR of its Organs. (b)Name FOUR past Secretary Generals of the UN before the current one. 4. Write on any FOUR of the following aspects of the UN; (a) The aims of the UN (b) The General Assembly (c)The Security Council (d)The Secretariat (e) The International Court of Justice (f) The Economic and Social Council 5.

What steps led to the formation of the United Nations Organisation? Discuss the

Successes and Failures of the UN.

THE COLD WAR 1945-1991. Definition: The Cold War was an international situation or environment that was characterized by persistent tension and conflicts between the democratic/Capitalist World and the Communist Camp in general or between the USA and the USSR in Particular. The Cold War was not a state of armed conflict but a struggle for superiority in National defense, economic growth, diplomacy, science and technology and ideology through the use of hostile words and actions.

ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR. 100

Some historians state that the Cold War can be traced to the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia when the Communists clearly declared their intensions to control and dominate the World. However, the origins of the Cold War can be clearly traced to the period of the 2 nd World War when the USA and the USSR formed a grand Alliance against Germany and Japan. There were a lot of differences and mistrusts between the two. By 1947, the Cold War was clearly in existence when the USA and the USSR formalized their differences during the Potsdam and Yalta Conferences. The Potsdam Conference was held on 15th July 1945 to discuss the future of Germany after the 2nd World War.

REASONS FOR THE COLD WAR. Many reasons have been given for the Emergency of the Cold War. Among them were;  Ideological Differences; though the USA and the USSR cooperated during the 2nd World War, they mistrusted each other due to ideological difference. Since 1917, the USSR had developed a Communist system which was a natural enemy of the Capitalist economy of the USA. The democratic states hated communism and its leaders.  Suspicion- suspicions and mistrust over each other’s military strength also contributed to the emergency of the Cold War. At the end of the 2nd World War, the USA and the USSR emerged as super powers. The secrecy over the atomic bomb created suspicions between the two. Therefore, a new kind of arms race in nuclear weapons emerged between the two.  The Spread of Communism- this also contributed to the emergence of the Cold War. Even before the end of the 2nd World War, the USSR imposed communist governments in Eastern Europe i.e. in Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Communist Eastern Europe was divided from Capitalist Western Europe by an Invisible demarcation called the “Iron Curtain”. This was the term used by the then British Prime Minister Winston Churchill used to describe the invisible separation that now existed between eastern and Western Europe. The USSR wanted to spread communism to Western Europe. The USA took it upon itself to stop the spread of Communism. This created tension between the USA and the USSR.

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ASPECTS OF THE COLD WAR. The Truman Doctrine- this was a belief that was started by the US President Harry Truman. According to him, it was the duty of the USA to use her technological and financial superiority to help stop the spread of communism in Europe. In March 1947, Truman obtained $400 million to assist in fighting communism in Europe. The Policy of Containment-the Truman Doctrine was translated into a government policy of Containment. This was a policy that was formulated to stop the spread of communism by using America’s Technological and financial superiority. The Marshal Plan- This was formulated in June 1947 to implement the Policy of Containment and The Truman Doctrine. The Marshal Plan was created to implement the injection of American Money into European Economic recovery. This was meant to improve the Social, economic and political situation in Europe by fighting hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. On 5th June, 1947, the American Secretary of State General George Marshal announced the European Recovery Program which became known as the Marshal Plan. By this plan, supplies of food, fuel, machinery and raw materials valued at $13 Billion were sent to Europe to combat the spread of communism. The Cominform- this was set up by Stalin, the USSR president in 1947. All communist Countries were supposed to be members. The aim of this organisation was to draw all communist countries together. It was also an economic organisation to encourage industrial development and trade among communist countries.

REGIONAL DEFENSE ORGANISATIONS In order to combat the spread of Communism, Western Europe decided to form defensive alliances against the Soviet Union. In 1947, Britain and France decided to form a 50 year Treaty of cooperation. In 1948, the BENELUX countries (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg) joined Britain and France and the Treaty became known as the Brussels Treaty of 1948. However, the members of the Brussels Treaty were not strong enough to stop any communist Attacks from the Soviet Union, only the USA was. Besides, the USA no longer wanted to be isolated. The USA joined Western Europe to form an alliance of defense against communism. 102

In April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was formed. The members of the new organisation were; USA, Britain, France, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg, Canada, Iceland, Italy, and Portugal while Greece, Turkey and West Germany joined in 1951. NATO became a military alliance aimed at defending Western Europe and North America from a possible Soviet military attack. It was stated in the treaty that an attack against any member country would be considered as a attack on all member states. NATO had a joined military force. The first commander of the NATO forces was an American, General Eisenhower. NATO states also agreed to; a. Firmly support the United Nations Charter. b. Make peaceful settlements of all disputes amongst themselves for international peace, Security and Justice. c. Encourage Economic cooperation. NATO was successful in checking the spread of communism because the communist made no further territorial gains anywhere in Europe after April 1949. NATO forces were ready to meet any communist challenges. The NATO air and Naval forces were well equipped and backed by the American Atomic power. The headquarters of NATO were based in France, Paris.

THE WARSAW PACT. In 1955, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in response to the formation of NATO. The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance formed against a possible attack from the Western Countries on the Soviet Union and its satellite states. The members of the Warsaw Pact were Russia, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania. Yugoslavia was not a member of the Warsaw Pact though she was a communist country. The Warsaw Pact like its rival organisation NATO, provided for a joint command of armed forces whose headquarters were in Moscow. The members of the Warsaw Pact agreed to; 

Resist the attacks of the Capitalists/imperialist states jointly.



Participate in mutual economic and cultural collaboration.



Accept the Russian Command of the forces. 103

THE COLD WAR CRISES 1948-1963. The crises that took place between 1948 and 1963 worsened the hostilities and rivalries between the communists and the capitalist states and intensified the Cold War. These were;

1. The First Berlin Crisis/Berlin Blocade-1948. After the 2nd World War, Germany was divided into four zones under the USA, Britain, France and the USSR. The Capital of Germany Berlin was also divided into four corresponding zones. However, Berlin was in the USSR zone. The Crisis started over money. The old Germany currency had become worthless and this created problems for the capitalists who wanted to develop their western side of Germany. The capitalist allies tried to persuade the Soviet Union to introduce a stronger currency but the situation suited the Russian Communist. The USA, Britain and France created a new currency for West Germany which the Russians did not accept in Berlin. The Russians reacted by blocking off Berlin from the rest of West Germany. On 23rd June, 1948, all roads, railways and canal links between Berlin and the border with west Germany were closed. This blockade was a clear challenge to the allies. The allies responded to the blockade by airlifting essential commodities such as food, fuel, and medical supplies. By May 1949, all line of communication was opened up by the Communist Russia. However, the Berlin Blockade of 1948 created tension between the communists and the capitalists and intensified the Cold War.

2. The Second Berlin Crisis of 1961. The Berlin Crisis of 1948 and the resultant Berlin Airlift crashed any hopes of a United Germany. In 1956, the allies combined their different ones and formed the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). The Russians also created the German Democratic Republic. This created further divisions. However, since 1948, many East Germans were escaping into West Germany by crossing from East Berlin into West Berlin. To prevent this, a 2,900km long border made of bricks

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was built by the communists. This became known as the Berlin Wall. This wall was completed in August 1961. This did not please the allies in West Berlin. American troops were sent to Berlin and this created tension between the two sides. But sides were getting ready for war but the UN intervened.

3. The Korean Crisis/War 1950-1953. After 1910, Korea was a Japanese territory. However, after the defeat of Japan, it was divided into South and North Korea which was under the USSR. The two Koreas were divided by a 38° line of latitude and North Korea comprised of 2/3 of the population while South Korea only had 1/3. After the withdrawal of the American troops in 1949, the Communist North Korean troops invaded the Capitalist South Korea with the Support of communist Russia and China. This conflict was resolved by the UN who sent troops to South Korea to evacuate the North Korean Army. The UN troops were under the command of General McAuther. The North Korean Army was driven back to the 38° line of Latitude. This incident worsened the hostilities between the communists and the capitalists.

4. The Congo Crisis-1960. After independence in 1960, Congo faced a number of problems. The American Government had supported the new democratic leaders while the Soviet Union supported the Rebels who were against the government such as Kasavubu and Patrice Lumumba. The Soviet Union openly supported the rebels by sending Vehicles, aircrafts and other war materials to Congo. The Presence of the American CIA was heavy in the Congo. Congo became a battle field for the USA and USSR between 1960 and 1961. This was because both sides wanted to control the rich resources found in the Congo. The internal Conflict in the Congo was resolved by the UN. This incident also escalated the Cold War.

5. The Cuban Missile Crisis-1962.

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Before 1959, America had economic interests in Cuba as they owned a large section of the Cuban strategic industries. In 1959, Fidel Castro became the Cuban president after he overthrew the democratically elected and American supported Fulgericio Batista. Fidel Castro introduced economic reforms by which he nationalized all strategic industries most of which were owned by the Americans. He introduced a communist kind of government. The Americans responded by not buying Cuban sugar and withholding financial aid. The President of Russia who succeeded Stalin was Nikita Khrushchev. He took advantage of the situation to make Cuba a satellite state. The Russians offered Cuba $100 million in aid and offered to buy Cuban sugar. The Americans reacted by helping the former dictator Fulgericio Batista to overthrow Castro. The US president J.F Kennedy authorized the invasion of Cuba at a place called the Bay of Pigs. However, there was a leak in the CIA and Castro was able to defeat the Americans at the Bay of Pigs on 18th April, 1961. This was an embarrassment to the USA and a victory to the USSR. After this incident, Cuba became closer to the USSR. In order to prepare for another attack from the USA. Cuba asked for military assistance from Russia. The Russians sent Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles and technical staff to Cuba to set up Missiles sites. Through the CIA, President Kennedy announced that there were Soviet Missile sites in Cuba. Through air surveillance, the Americans discovered USSR ships taking missiles to Cuba with a range of 4000km and most of the American Major cities were within this range. This alarmed the USA. Strong counter measures were taken. The American fleet was ordered to blockade Cuba and stop any Soviet Ships carrying military equipment. In October 1962, the American president accused Khrushchev of being an aggressor. However, Khrushchev denied the accusations while the whole world waited anxiously for a nuclear war. The Soviet Union was told to dismantle missile sites in Cuba and was warned that any missile launched at the USA from Cuba would be treated as having been launched from the USSR and that the USA would retaliate by attacking the USSR. However, Khrushchev later admitted to the presence of Soviet Missiles in Cuba for her protection

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and accused the USA of being an aggressor. Khrushchev also stated that the USSR would continue shipping missiles to Cuba. As a result, the USA government ordered troops to Florida and prepared 156 rockets to be fired at the USSR. Some were set up in some West European Countries such as Greece. At this point, nuclear war threatened mankind. At this critical stage, both the USA and the USSR began to back down. They started negotiations that ended the Cuban Missile Crisis. They established a line of communication called the Hotline. This paved way for future negotiations that contributed to the end of the Cold War.

THE END OF THE COLD WAR After the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, it was realized by both the Communists and the capitalists realized that any nuclear war between them would led to Mutual destruction. Khrushchev and Kennedy settled their differences over Cuba and established a line of communication between them called the Hotline to prevent any future misunderstandings. As a result of this new development, hostilities between the communist and the capitalists were reduced. This gradual reduction or relaxation of hostilities between the two was referred as Détente. This new situation resulted into the signing of treaties such as the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 5th August, 1963. By this treaty, all nuclear tests in the Atmosphere or under water were banned. Jimmy Cater who became the USA president in 1977 continued with the process of Détente. He continued negotiations with the USSR. These became known as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT). By SALT, both the USA and USSR were willing to limit their production and expenditure on nuclear weapons while staying super powers. The Change of leadership in the USSR also contributed to the end of the cold war. In October, 1964, Khrushchev was forced to resign and was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev. This new president wanted the international acceptance of the Soviet Union’s sphere of influence. In August 1975, a treaty called the Final Act was signed by European statesmen in which Western European countries recognized the existing boundaries and promised more trade with the communist countries.

THE DISINTERGRATION OF THE COMMUNIST BLOCK. 107

The disintegration of the Communist block also contributed to the end of the Cold War. From 1953 onwards, the Soviet Union started facing a lot of discontent and a lot of challenges from its satellite states. These discontents and challenges were mostly as a result of the economic policies and the operations of the Warsaw Pact. By 1991, the USSR had undergone a series of Revolutions that led to the establishment of democratic governments in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. From 1990, the new Russian President Mikhail Gobarchev introduced reforms that brought the Cold War to an end. Gobarchev’ aim was to transform the Soviet Society to the same level as that of the Western European Capitalist society. He blamed the backwardness of Russia and it economic problems on the Communist System. To this effect, he introduced two reforming policies that led to the end of Communism and consequently the Cold War. These policies were Perestroika and Glasnost. Perestroika was introduced in October 1985; it was an economic policy that introduced reforms with the aim of reducing central planning and restructuring the economy. Perestroika introduced a market economy and free enterprise. Russians were now allowed to own businesses and by August 1986, foreign investments especially from the USA were being allowed into the Soviet Union. Glasnost was a political policy that was introduced to pave way for democracy. This was a policy of open and public discussions of issues affecting the USSR. This policy allowed the free flow of information, in Newspapers, on radios and national television, unlike during communism. In 1990, during the during the May Day Celebrations, the Russians marched to the streets and demanded the end of communism. On 25th December, 1991, the Union of the Socialist Soviet Republic ceased to exist. This marked the end of the Cold War.

QUESTIONS. 1. What was meant by the term “Cold War”? What were the main events in the development of the Cold War between 1945 and 1953? {2,18}

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2. Define Cold War. What were the Chief causes of tension between the USA and the USSR in the years 1945 and 1962? {4,16}

3. Describe the following incidents to illustrate the Cold War’ (a) The Berlin Crisis 1948 -1949. (b) The Korean Crisis of 1950-1953 (c) The Cuban Missile Crisis 1960-1963 {7,7,7}

4. What led to the Development of the Cold War between the USA and the USSR after 1945? What reforms were taken by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1990 to bring the Cold War to an end?{14,6}

5. What reforms did Fidel Castro introduce in Cuba when he came to power? What were the results of these reforms? {4, 16}. 6. What factors made the USA a “Great Power”? Explain why the USA intervened in Three Cold War Crises since 1945. How did she achieve her aims in making these interventions? {5,15}

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