ALDE122_5.Academic Text Structure

Proof copy iii 2020

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Published by the Centre for Academic and Professional Language Practice, Potchefstroom, North-West University. © Compiled by K. Andrianatos

A. Potgieter

R. Fritz

S. Steyn

A. Jordaan

M. Taljard

H. Louw

Z. Meintjes

E. Meihuizen

S. van der Merwe

K. Motlhankane

T. van Dyk

L. Olivier

M. van Graan

M. Nel Intellectual property of the authors. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission from the publisher. Proof copy iii 2020 Layout by A. Vorster and M.Nel Cover page design by L. Fourie Font: Corbel 11 All materials used in the book were appropriately acknowledged. If there are any mistakes or omissions the authors would appreciate any suggestions to make the necessary corrections.

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ACADEMIC LITERACY: FINDING, PROCESSING AND PRODUCING INFORMATION WITHIN THE UNIVERSITY CONTEXT

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1 Understanding arguments in academic articles The ability to read with the aim of following an author’s argument will

An academic journal article is also

enable you to analyse texts meaningfully, systematically and closely.

called an academic article or

As indicated in Unit 2, the academic journal article is the most

simply an article.

important source of information used by academics. The academic article reports on research results to the larger scientific community. The persuasive power of such a report is largely based on the author’s ability to structure his/her text logically, according to the accepted norms of the field in which the research was done. Although the surface structure of the academic articles in these various fields may differ, the underlying academic argument consists mostly of the same building blocks. Because the article is such an iconic text within academia, the way in which arguments function in this type of text will be discussed in the following section. The basic principles remain the same for most other academic texts, but variables such as physical organisation, length and the function of the text type should be considered. An academic article usually contains an abstract. Then follows an introductory section, the body (discussion section) of the text, which usually comprises the most pages, and finally the conclusion. In the illustration below, the academic text is compared to a hamburger: the top and bottom buns represent the introduction and the conclusion, which have many similarities. The layers of patty represent the different main points of the text, while the garnish gives the burger as a whole more substance. The patties and garnish represent the reasons and additional evidence and arguments. The sauces serve a connective purpose – they are the connective words and phrases that bind the text as a unit and help the reader to understand (eat) the text (hamburger) more easily. Keep this illustration in mind in the discussion on the parts that make up academic articles.

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The following discussion of the argument structure of the academic article is done on the basis of the article “Writing in the university: education, knowledge and reputation” (Hyland, 2013). Read this model article in its entirety thoroughly in preparation for the discussions and activities that follow. The knowledge you gain regarding the analysis of the academic article will serve as a tool for the analysis of other articles which you have to process for your writing in the academic literacy classes and for your other modules.

1. Introduction (Bun) • 1-2 sentences with background information • Problem statement • Thesis • Preview

2. Body paragraph 1 (Burger) • Point in support of thesis • Evidence / data • Examples / explanations • Links to ensure logical flow

3. Body paragraph 2 (Burger) • Point in support of thesis • Evidence / data • Examples / explanations • Links to ensure logical flow

4. Body paragraph 3 (Burger) • Point in support of thesis • Evidence / data • Examples / explanations • Links to ensure logical flow

5. Conclusion (Bun) • Referring to problem statement and thesis statement • Summary of main points discussed (data/evidence) • Logical conclusion

Figure 1: The text burger

Source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/B6c8M7YsYcE/Uzlx63i7_qI/AAAAAAAAEc4/hNTdVI1I2Ec/s1600/hamburgerBIG+(1).jpg

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The abstract The abstract of an academic article contains a synopsis of the basic argument presented in the article. Work through the following example for the analysis of the abstract of the example article (Hyland, 2013). Although not all articles are as clearly set out as Hyland’s, the basic elements differentiated here are mostly present. Writing in the university: education, knowledge and reputation This paper challenges the widespread view that

skill that students have failed to develop at

writing is somehow peripheral to the more

school,

serious aspects of university life – doing research

students and academics have in controlling the

and teaching students. It argues that universities

conventions of disciplinary discourses. Ultimately,

are ABOUT writing and that specialist forms of

and in an important sense, we are what we write,

academic literacy are at the heart of everything

and we need to understand the distinctive ways

we do: central to constructing knowledge,

our disciplines have of addressing colleagues and

educating

a

presenting arguments, as it is through language

professional academic career. Seeing literacy as

that academics and students conceptualise their

embedded in the beliefs and practices of

subjects and argue their claims persuasively.

students

and

negotiating

helps

explain

the

difficulties

both

individual disciplines, instead of a generic

Which incorrect assumption is highlighted? (Or: What is the problem statement?) Writing is seen as peripheral to academia. Why is it a problem? (Or: What is the background to the problem?) Academic literacy is seen as a generic skill that students lack because they did not learn it at school. What is the author’s point of view concerning the problem? (Or: What is the thesis statement [solution]?) Specialist forms of academic literacy are central to the core activities of a university. How will the author address the problem in the article? (Or: Which prieview does the author give of the main points according to which the argument will be presented?) In his article the author focuses on the following aspects of the core activities of the university in which academic literacy plays a central role: (1) constructing knowledge, (2) educating students and (3) negotiating a professional academic career.

The introduction The introduction of an article is an important part of the text, as it gives the reader an indication of essential aspects of the article to follow, such as the problem underlying the research, the 5

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background against which the research was conducted, the procedure followed by the author(s) and often an indication of the findings. Introductions can be structured in many ways, but in academic articles the funnel shape (which is characteristic of deductive arguments) is often used. As point of departure, a brief background or contextualisation is usually given for the research on which the article is reporting. The aim is to embed the writing in the research already conducted by other specialists in the field and to demonstrate that the author is aware of existing knowledge in his/her field that may be relevant to his/her study. The problem statement of the study follows on from this. For example: ‘XYZ is a problem because of ABC’. The author then gives an indication of his/her position regarding the problem or issue being examined (it is also called the ‘central argument’ or ‘thesis statement’). Subsequently a brief preview of what will follow in the remainder of the article is usually provided, focusing on the main points that will be presented and discussed in support of the thesis. Sometimes a brief indication (implicitly or explicitly) of the main conclusions is provided, but such an indication cannot be seen as a key element of an academic article.

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The structure of the introduction of academic texts is presented in the following figure:

INTRODUCTION GENERAL 1. Brief description or background (contextualisation)

2. The problem under consideration.

3. Thesis statement (central argument / author’s position)

4. Preview focusing on main points in support of thesis

SPECIFIC

Figure 2: Structure of introduction

As you can gather from the discussion above, by exploring the abstract and introduction of an academic article it is possible to determine its main points and the central argument it contains. These two sections of text contain a road map as it were of what the argument in a longer text looks like and how it should be read.

The body of the text (discussion section) In the body (discussion section) of the academic article the main points (data/evidence) in support of the researcher’s thesis are presented and discussed. The necessary explanations and/or examples are presented here and transition markers should be used throughout to ensure the logical flow of the argument. If there are counterarguments (refutations, provisos, qualifications, exceptions) to the thesis of the article, they too should be presented in the discussion section. As mentioned before, in each discipline there are accepted traditions and principles for organising textual elements, but together these elements should form a logically structured argument. In time

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you will become familiar with the typical surface structure of texts in your field of study. Here we focus on the essential structural characteristics which academic texts have in common.

1.3.1 Argument structure of the paragraph as textual unit within the article Read the five sentences below. In relation to each other they convey the mini-argument of an author at paragraph level: Contents

Function

(1) Fatigue because of long working hours and staff shortages seems to

(1) Thesis statement

have contributed to the worst disasters of the late 20 century. (2) The th

nuclear disaster at Chernobyl in the Ukraine and the explosion of the

(2) Reason (evidence)

Challenger space shuttle are but two examples. (3) In his book The 24-

(3) Support 1

Hour Society, Martin Moore-Ede says that the explosion at Chernobyl occurred during a special drill under supervision of an exhausted team of electrical engineers who had been at the plant for more than 13 hours. (4) After a thorough investigation of the explosion of the Challenger

(4) Support 2

space shuttle a Presidential Commission report stated that fatigue among management, as a result of several days of unusual working hours and lack of sleep, largely contributed to the unwise decision to launch the shuttle. (5) A tired brain therefore tends to make mistakes that can lead

(5) Conclusion

to catastrophes, as in the case of the nuclear disaster at Chernobyl and the explosion of the Challenger space shuttle.

1.3.2 Argument structure in larger parts of text: general textual patterns The principle that texts are structured in a typical manner because of the logical order of the argument, as seen in the example above, applies to the level of the article as a whole. The close relationship between sentences in a paragraph is called ‘cohesion’. The broader relationship above sentence level between paragraphs and paragraph clusters is called ‘coherence’. The typical ways in which texts are arranged to establish coherence are called ‘textual patterns’. When a skilled reader recognises one element of a textual pattern in a text, he/she automatically expects that other elements of this textual pattern will follow. For example, when the reader recognises a general statement, he/she expects examples that support and illustrate this statement. When a problem is indicated, the reader expects that the author will present the causes and effects of the problem, and that a solution will be suggested or that a conclusion will be reached, at the least (Blanckenberg & Blanckenberg, 2011:78). 8

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There are many textual patterns an author can use to give his/her argument more depth, of which the main patterns (see Blanckenberg & Blanckenberg, 2011:78) are the following: 1.

Statement with examples

2.

Description and definition

3.

Chronology

4.

Problem statement and solution

5.

Cause and effect

6.

Comparison (similarity and contrast)

Keep in mind that, in a long text, authors can use different textual patterns in different parts of the text and that the reader should be able to recognise the textual pattern used in each case in order to follow the argument optimally (fully). The most commonly used textual patterns from the preceding list are explained below: 1.

Statement with examples: This type of text begins with a general statement followed by supporting sentences in which examples or applications are presented. However, the author can also reverse this pattern and first present the examples or applications and then the statement as a conclusion.

2.

Description and definition: This textual pattern is used when authors want to give the meaning of a concept or idea as unambiguously and clearly as possible. When a concrete object such as a pencil is defined, it is not enough to say that a pencil is a writing instrument, because a fountain pen, a felt-tip pen, a brush and a piece of charcoal can also be used as writing instruments. You can begin the definition by saying that a pencil is a writing instrument. You have then named the broader category to which the instrument belongs. In order to prevent confusion with other writing instruments, additional, descriptive information should be provided, for example: a pencil is a writing instrument consisting of a piece of graphite in an oblong wooden rod. You can also write a definition based on similarities and differences between this and other similar aspects or objects.

3.

Chronology: When a text is arranged chronologically it means that the author arranges data, events or facts systematically, similar to how a timeline would be arranged .

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4.

Problem statement and solution: This textual pattern is usually quite complex. The following structural aspects usually occur in this type of text: Background [Contextualisation] → Problem and cause of problem → Examples → Contrast → Solution → Conclusion

The conclusion of a text The conclusion forms the closing section of the text and is the final opportunity for an author to convey his/her position with conviction and to influence the reader. The ending should leave the reader with an impression of completeness and closure – the reader should be left with no loose ends, incomplete arguments or questions. At the same time, however, the conclusion also suggest that the subject has not yet been exhausted and that further research on it is still relevant and important. The final sentence should therefore end the discussion without having the final word about the research topic. Many literary works of art end with a reference to or a quotation from the beginning of the work – coming full circle, as it were. Academic texts also employ this circular structure: the conclusion of the text always refers to the introduction. It is general practice to start the conclusion by paraphrasing the thesis statement, as it flows from the problem statement. Then follows a brief summary of the main points of the text with the emphasis on the way in which these main points support the final conclusion arising from them. It is important that the author explicitly explains how he/she reached a conclusion – the logical steps on which the argument is based are set out clearly so that the reader does not lose the argument and so that there are no misunderstandings. In order to clearly frame the argument in the closing section of the text and highlight the relationship between the different parts of the argument, the author uses transitional markers. The reader should therefore pay special attention to words such as ‘therefore’, ‘due to’, ‘notwithstanding’, ‘however’ and ‘hence’.

Overview: functioning of the argument in academic articles In our discussion in this chapter, the first step in the argumentation process is identified as formulating a thesis. Data should be presented to support or prove the claim made in the introductory 10

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part of the argument. The argument should end with a logical conclusion. For processing the academic article, it is essential that you understand how arguments in this type of text function in order to process the academic article. From the discussion above it should be clear that the basic building blocks of the argument also form the basis for a well-structured academic article. Figure 9 summarises this structure visually:

Introduction

Background, problem statement, thesis, preview

Counterargument:

Discussion / Body

Conclusion

Discussing of main points / reasons / evidence in support of thesis

Presenting refutations / provisos / qualifications / exceptions

Referring to problem statement and thesis, summarising main points discussed, logical conclusion taking into account counterarguments

Figure 3: Functioning of the argument in the academic article

Source (adapted and translated):Taljard, M. 2015. Die onderrig van argumentvaardighede in ’n akademiese skryfkursus vir eerstejaars: ’n beste-praktykbeskrywing. Tydskrif vir taalonderrig, 49(1):255-279.

2 Conclusion The ability to identify the argument in texts is one of the most important skills you need to master to process information effectively. To help you in this endeavour, this section focuses on argumentation – the theoretical aspects and their practical application when processing texts. The 11

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emphasis is on the development of arguments in academic articles. Developing skills in argumentation is crucial in order to analyse texts meaningfully, systematically and closely with an eye to writing your own texts.

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